
Class l-^Qa^J^y 

CoEyrig'nt]^? 



CCramCHT DEPOSIT. 



Teacher Training Series 

EDITED BY 

W. W. CHARTERS 

Dean of the Faculty of Education, Unlverstty of Missouri 



RURAL SCHOOL 
MANAGEMENT 



BY 

WILLIAM ALBERT WILKINSON 

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MAYVILLE, N.D, 




SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY 
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 






COPYlilGHT, 1917, 

By silver, BURDETT & COMPANY. 



M&R 19 1917 

©CI.A457486 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

For many years the graduates of normal schools 
and colleges of education have turned from the rural 
schools toward the more pleasant surroundings of the 
towns and cities. In the towns the salaries are usually 
better, the living conditions are more agreeable, the 
materials and equipment of education are more ade- 
quate, and the prestige of the teachers' positions is 
increased. With the unparalleled growth of city 
school systems demanding an increasing supply of 
teachers from year to year, the normal schools have 
been taxed to the limit of their ability in supplying 
the demand. As a natural outcome of these conditions 
the machinery of the institutions is directed primarily 
toward the training of students who will be able to 
work efficiently in graded school systems. 

This has left the schools of the country and the village 
without an adequately trained teaching corps. At 
first, they depended upon those residents of the country, 
mature and immature, who could show evidence of 
knowlejdge chiefly gained in country schools, sufficient 
to obtain a teacher's certificate. Later, when the high 
schools, with the aid of the state and because of a 
quickening of interest among the citizens of towns and 
cities, grew in numbers, and became more accessible 
to children of the rural districts, high school graduates 
sought their teaching apprenticeship in country schools. 

Soon, however, the glaring deficiencies of elementary 
and high school graduates became so apparent that 
the attention of educators was directed toward methods 
of improving the teaching abilities of those graduates 



vi Editor's Introduction 

who were to go into rural school work. This led by 
logical steps to a movement, now nation wide in scope, 
for the training of high school students for the vocation 
of teaching. 

Three forms have been developed. One is the so- 
called county normal school, which gives training to 
graduates of elementary schools in county institutions 
which are aided generously by appropriations from 
the revenues of the state. These schools are inde- 
pendent of the high school and are equipped and 
manned for the specific purpose of training teachers. 
A second agency for training rural school teachers is 
found in the development of courses and curriculums 
arranged primarily for this purpose in the normal 
schools. During the summer sessions these courses 
are crowded with rural teachers and during the regu- 
lar sessions they are showing a gratifying increase in 
enrollment.' The third type is the so-called teacher 
training department in the high school. The expenses 
of this department are usually paid by the state, which 
arranges the curriculums and passes upon the adequacy 
of the training by inspection of the departments and 
certification of the graduates. 

When these schools and departments had once been 
established, the teachers engaged, and the curriculums 
organized, the textbook problem emerged. Schools 
cannot be taught without textbooks. The teacher 
either uses the one that best suits his purposes or he 
makes one composed of outlines and references. Some 
sort of text he must have. But the available texts, 
for the most part, possessed two fundamental weak- 
nesses. They were written for mature students and, 
consequently, laid more stress upon principles than 
upon specific methods; and they were prepared for 



Editor's Introduction vii 

students who were being trained to teach in graded 
schools. 

Already, a few textbooks primarily intended for 
the use of prospective teachers in the schools of the 
country and the small villages have appeared. But 
the problem of providing suitable texts has not been 
completely solved, and further effort needs to be directed 
upon its solution. 

This fact has led to the planning of a series of which 
the present volume is the first. Certainly, the task is 
one well worth undertaking and it is hoped by the pub- 
lishers, the authors, and the editor that a definite 
contribution may be made to rural education and the 
training of teachers for rural schools. 

The characteristic differences between textbooks for 
mature teachers of graded schools and young teachers 
in one-, two-, or three-roomed schools are three. 

It may be true that mature students may be taught 
principles and expected to make the applications for 
themselves; but young students, while finding it 
easy to learn the principles, find it difficult if not im- 
possible to make the applications of these principles 
to their practical work. Unless these young people 
are shown many and varied concrete and specific 
applications, they do not and cannot use the principles. 
They can only turn back to the specific methods which 
were used upon them when they were themselves 
in school. A textbook must be constructed for them 
which consists not of a statement of principles with a 
small number of illustrations, but which has many 
specific methods whose significance is illuminated by 
their reference to the principles upon which they are 
based. The exposition must be concrete. 

It is obvious that since the problems of teaching in 



viii Editor's Introduction 

rural and village schools are different in part from those 
of the towns and cities, the subject matter of text- 
books dealing with these problems must, likewise, be 
different, in part. Identity of subject matter must, 
of course, be preserved when the methods of procedure 
are fundamental in the teaching process, though appli- 
cations in this case may vary; but identity must not 
be sought for when the problems are different. Text- 
books for rural teachers should be written for them. 

The fundamental function of courses for such teach- 
ers and, therefore, of textbooks for these courses, is 
to prepare teachers to teach children who live in the 
country. There may be a difference of opinion about 
the advisability of training these children for country 
life, but there can be none about the necessity of utiliz- 
ing their experience gained in the country in teaching 
them the procedure of successful living. It is the only 
language they know, and as in the days of Pentecost 
every child has the right to hear the gospel preached 
in his own tongue. It is, therefore, necessary for one 
reason or the other, or for both, to prepare textbooks 
breathing the spirit of the country as it centers around 
the rural school. 

These three characteristics are well illustrated in 
the present volume. It is concrete and specific, and 
principles are used to illuminate and organize the pro- 
cedure. It is written for the teachers of the country 
and the village. It recognizes the enlarging service 
of the school in rural life by the constant iteration of 
the fact that the matrix of the school is the community 
from which flows the life blood of the school and back 
to which the rejuvenated currents of throbbing life 
must pulsate. 

W. W. CHARTERS. 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

The recent awakening in the study of rural life 
has given to the rural school a new task and a new 
responsibility. It is very generally conceded that 
the country school, because of its social nature, must 
be the chief means and factor in making country life 
richer in both a material and a spiritual sense. To the 
end that the school may meet more adequately the 
demands of the new ruralism, better trained teachers 
are needed — teachers who have a clear conception of 
the mission of the new rural school and an enthusiasm 
born of a knowledge of what ought to be done and how 
it may be accomplished. The present volume is an 
attempt to make some contribution to the supplying 
of this need. The book is meant primarily for in- 
tending teachers and those already in service. In 
its preparation the author has been guided by the 
problem : What ought the teacher to know regarding 
management in order that he may make his school 
serve, in the largest measure, the educational, economic, 
and social needs of a rural community? The treat- 
ment is an attempted elaboration of two central 
thoughts: (1) The school as an efficient agency in 
promoting the physical, mental, and moral welfare of 
country boys and girls, and (2) the school as a factor 



Author's Preface 



in the economic and social improvement of the com- 
munity at large. If the book serves to give teachers 
this conception of the twofold mission of the school 
and si)me knowledge of how these ends may be at- 
tained, the purpose of the author will have been 
realized. 

The writer wishes to acknowledge here his indebted- 
ness, first of all, to Dean W. W. Charters, upon whose 
suggestion the work was undertaken and under whose 
sympathetic guidance it has been prepared ; secondly, 
to President T. A. Hillyer, Miss Lake G. Watson, and 
Professor C. R. Travis, of the Mayville State Normal 
School, for valuable assistance rendered, especially in 
the preparation of Chapters VIII and IX, the main 
features of which were first published as a normal 
school bulletin; and thirdly, to many state superin- 
tendents of schools and others too numerous to men- 
tion by name, for helpful literature bearing on the 
topics treated. However, none of these must be held 
accountable for any shortcomings the book may have. 
For the defects the author alone is responsible. 

W. A. W. 



Mayville, North Dakota, 
March, 1917. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Chapter I. The School and Its Patrons ... 1 
I. The Functions of the School. 
II. Difficulties Encountered. 

Chapter II. How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 15 
I. Securing the Cooperation of the School Board. 
II. Acquainting Patrons with the Work of the Schools. 

III. Raising Money for Equipment. 

IV. School Patrons' Associations. 

Chapter III. School Hygiene 44 

I. Functions of School Hygiene. 
II. Difficulties Encountered. 

Chapter IV. School Hygiene (continued). How to 

Make the School a Health Agency . . 57 
Hygiene of the School Premises. 

Chapter V. School Hygiene (concluded) . . 93 

I. The General Health Campaign. 
II. Medical Inspection of School Children. 
III. Hot Lunches in Schools. 

Chapter VI. Beautifying the School Premises . . 113 
I. Functions of a Beautiful School Environment. 
II. Difficulties Encountered. 
III. How to Beautify the School Premises. 

1. Beautifying the Interior Surroundings. 

2. Beautifying the Outdoor Surroundings. 

xi 



xii Table of Contents 

PAGE 

Chapter VII. Play and the School Playground . 136 

I. Functions of Play and Playgrounds. 

II. Difficulties Encountered. 

III. How to Equip and Use the School Playground. 

1. Equipping the Playground. 

2. Conducting the Play Activities. 

Chapter VIII. The Daily Program and Alternation . 165 
I. Functions of the Daily Program. 
II. Difficulties Encountered. 
III. How to Arrange the Daily Program. 

Chapter IX. The Course of Study .... 185 

I. Functions of a Course of Study. 
II. Difficulties Encountered. 

III. Suggested Outline for a Course of Study. 

Chapter X. School Attendance 214 

I. Importance of Regularity of Attendance. 
II. Difficulties Encountered. 
III. How to Improve School Attendance. 

Chapter XI. School Incentives 238 

I. Functions of School Incentives. 
II. Difficulties Encountered. 

III. How to Secure Incentives for Study. 

1. Classification of Incentives. 

2. Use of Specific Incentives. 

3. Use of Generic Incentives. 

Chapter XII. School Government .... 264 
I. Functions of School Government. 

II. Difficulties Encountered. 

III. How to Govern the School. 

Chapter XIII. Measuring the Results of Teaching . 289 
I. Functions of Educational Measurements. 

II. Difficulties Encountered. 



Table of Contents xiii 



III. How to Measure the Results of Teaching. 

1. Examinations. 

2. Daily Recitations. • 

3. Objective Standards. 

Chapter XIV. Records and Reports .... 307 

I. Functions of Records and Reports. t 

II. Difficulties Encountered. 
III. How to Keep Records and Make Reports. 

1. The Keeping of Records. 

2. The Making of Reports. 

Chapter XV. The School as a Social Center . . 332 
I. Functions of a Social Center. 
II. Difficulties Encountered. 
III. How to Make the School a Social Center. 

1. Unorganized Social Activities. 

2. Organized Social Center Work. 

Chapter XVI. Organization for Administrative 

Purposes 353 

I. Functions and Types of School Organization. 
II. Difficulties Encountered. 
III. Better Methods of School Organization. 

1. The County Unit System. 

2. The Consolidation of Schools. 

Chapter XVII. Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 376 
I. Functions of Boys' and Girls' Clubs. 
II. Difficulties Encountered. 
III. How to Organize and Conduct Boys' and Girls' Clubs. 

Chapter XVIII. The Teacher 392 

I. Functions of the Teacher. 
II. Difficulties Encountered in Rural Schools. 
III. How to Get Better Teachers. 

1. The Training of Rural Teachers. 

2. The Retaining of Teachers in Rural Schools. 

Chapter XIX. Summary of Principles .... 410 
List of Material for Collateral Reading . . . 414 
Index 417 



RURAL SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 

CHAPTER I 
THE SCHOOL AND ITS PATRONS 

I. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL 

In our study of school management we shall try to 
find out some of the things we ought to do to make the 
school serve its purposes most completely. It seems, 
then, that we should begin with an attempt to see just 
what these purposes are. 

Relation of Teacher and Patrons. In the earliest 
times there were no schools, and each family had to 
educate or train its own children. But as the duties 
of home and family life increased, parents adopted the 
plan of employing some outside person to help in caring 
for the children. It was found that one person could 
take care of the children from several homes at the same 
time, so a group of parents would unite in employing 
this outside helper. In the course of time it came about 
that the person so employed spent all his time teaching 
the children the things they needed to know. Thus 
schools were first established to assist parents in the 
care and training of their children. From this simple, 
crude beginning our present system of public schools has 
developed. 

The school, it is true, has undergone many changes 
since its early beginning; but the relation of teacher 

1 



Rural School Management 



and patron has not changed. The school is still a 
partnership affair ; teacher and parents are colaborers, 
mutual helpers in the training of children. This rela- 
tion exists in every phase of the school's work. It 
follows, therefore, that if the school is to attain to the 
highest success, if it is to accomplish the greatest 
amount of good for the community, the patrons must 
be interested in its work and willing to cooperate with 
the teacher in every possible way. 

We are now ready to consider what the school of the 
present should, by right, undertake to do for the com- 
munity in which it is located. 

Special Function of the School. We have seen that 
the school originated as an aid to parents in educating 
their children. This is still its most important function. 

Now, if we were to ask the patrons of the school what, 
in their opinion, the education of children should con- 
sist in, we should probably get a great many different 
answers. Some would tell us that it consists in giving 
children the kind of training that will enable them to 
earn a better living. Others would say that it con- 
sists in training them for the duties of citizenship. 
Still others would probably hold that education is 
primarily the developing of the physical, mental, and 
moral powers of the pupils. Each of these — training in 
moral character, preparation for earning a living, devel- 
oping the powers of the pupil, making better citizens, 
imparting culture — would probably be named as the 
most important thing in education. And it must be 
admitted that there are some very good reasons for 
holding each one of these views. The truth is, educa- 
tion includes training along all these lines. 

If we were to put the same questions to the leading 
educators of the country, they would probably say that 



The School and Its Patrons 



education consists in ''training children for social effi- 
ciency." What they mean by this is that the child 
should be trained in such matters as moral character, 
care of the body, skill in earning a living, willingness 
to be of service to other people, ability to perform the 
duties of citizenship, appreciation of good music and 
literature and art. To train the pupil along these lines, 
to make him, as far as possible, a ''socially efficient" 
individual, is the special function of the school. 

Other Functions of the School. There was a time 
when it was thought that the school's only function 
was to teach the children the usual school subjects. 
It was not supposed that the teacher had any duties 
outside of the school or that the school could serve 
the community in any way except to instruct the 
children. But this view is no longer very common. 
There are three other ways in which the school can 
be of service to the community. First. It should 
encourage and direct certain out-of-school activities 
among the young people of the district. Boys' and 
girls' clubs, literary societies, debating contests, musical 
organizations, offer excellent opportunities for this sort 
of service. Second. The school can help the patrons 
themselves in various practical ways. Opportunities 
for such service are found, for instance, in testing seed 
grain for the farmers, improving health conditions in 
the homes, which may result in the saving of doctors' 
bills, lending from the school library books and bulletins 
which deal with matters of practical importance in 
the home or on the farm, testing milk from the dairy 
herds, helping patrons to keep more systematic ac- 
counts of household receipts and expenses, estimating 
the cost of new buildings or other improvements. 
Third. It should strive to make the conditions of 



Rural School Management 



life more satisfying, more enjoyable for the entire 
community — for adults as well as for young people. 
This it can do by arranging for educative meetings 
and wholesome social gatherings in the schoolhouse. 

We now see that the school is not limited in its 
functions to the training of the children of the district. 
It has a wider mission in the community, and a great 
many schools are now performing these other functions 
in a highly satisfactory manner. 

Summary. Schools were first established to aid parents in 
training their children. Teachers and parents were partners in 
the task. This relation between teacher and parent still exists, 
hence the necessity of their working together for the highest suc- 
cess of the shool. The special function of the school is to educate 
children, but it has other important functions ; namely, to direct 
educative out-of-school activities of young people, to render 
practical aid to patrons, and to provide educative and enjoyable 
entertainments for the community at large. 

II. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

It was pointed out in the last section that the success 
of the school depends in a large measure on the active 
interest and cooperation of its patrons. Now, as a 
matter of fact, this relation of mutual helpfulness 
between teacher and parents does not exist in all 
schools. There are, no doubt, a few instances here 
and there where all of the patrons of the school give 
it the hearty support it ought to have. But such 
cases are at present the exception rather than the 
rule. A great majority of teachers, especially in 
rural schools, are laboring under serious difficulties, 
obstacles which must be removed before the schools 
can do all they should, either in the training of children 
or in the improvement of community life in general. 
The purpose of this section is to point out some of 



The School and Its Patrons 



the difficulties due to lack of understanding and cooper- 
ation on the part of patrons which the teacher some- 
times encounters in his efforts to make the school serve 
its purposes in the fullest measure. 

Indifference of Patrons. In every school district 
there are a few patrons who are deeply interested in 
the work of the school. These interested parents are 
the teacher's best helpers. They send their children 
to school regularly. They are loyal to the teacher 
and show a willingness to help him at any time when 
they can be of service. They look after the needs 
of the school as best they can, even, in some instances, 
taking time from their own affairs to do so. They 
are, as a rule, in favor of levying taxes sufficient to 
get good teachers and provide the school with the 
necessary equipment and supplies. 

On the other hand, in almost every district are found 
some patrons who have very little or no interest in the 
school. Unfortunately, in many instances, especially 
in rural communities, these outnumber those who are 
interested. Indifference on the part of the patrons 
may be traced to two main causes. 

Causes of Indifference. First. The poor results 
obtained from the school are no doubt partly respon- 
sible for the lack of interest in its work. Some parents 
think that their children do not always get as much 
benefit from the school as they should. Two short- 
comings of the school are pointed out in this connection : 
(1) It fails to ground the pupils thoroughly in the funda- 
mentals of an elementary education. Instances of this 
failure are found in the case of pupils who, after spend- 
ing several years in the study of arithmetic and spelling, 
are still unable to solve accurately simple practical prob- 
lems or to spell correctly the words most used in every- 



6 Rural School Management 

day life. (2) It spends too much time on things that are 
of httle value to the pupil to the neglect of other things 
much more valuable. An instance of this defect may 
be cited in the case of the rural teacher who refused 
to teach elementary agriculture in order that the class 
might have extra time for the study of technical 
grammar. Where such shortcomings as these exist, 
there is very likely to be found a lack of genuine 
interest in the school on the part of some patrons. 

Second. A lack of knowledge of what the school is 
actually doing is, perhaps, the most common cause 
of indifference among patrons. Many parents never 
visit the school. In the country districts there is 
usually very little opportunity to hear about school 
affairs from other people, and the information which 
parents get from their children is generally too meager 
to give them a correct notion of the actual work of 
the school. No matter how excellent this work may 
be, if patrons have no knowledge of it they cannot 
be expected to be very deeply interested in it. 

Results of Indifference. Indifference on the part 
of patrons, if it is very widespread, hinders the work 
of the school in at least three important ways. First. 
It interferes with attendance. Parents who are not 
interested in the school are less likely to see that their 
children attend regularly than are parents who are 
interested. Second. It frequently results in a tax 
levy which is inadequate for the support of the school. 
Indifferent patrons can hardly be expected to provide 
the funds necessary to employ good teachers and pro- 
cure the equipment needed. This matter is discussed 
more fully in a later paragraph. Third. It tends 
to make school discipline more difficult. Undoubtedly 
a great many of the more " troublesome cases " in 



The School and Its Patrons 



school discipline could be avoided or happily settled,' 
if there were a clear understanding between teacher 
and parent and a spirit of mutual helpfulness on the 
part of both. 

Summary. Every school is fortunate in having at least a few 
interested patrons. But in nearly all districts there are some 
patrons who are not interested in the school. The indifference of 
these patrons may be due (1) to the poor results of the school's 
work both as to thoroughness in the fundamentals and as to the 
usefulness of many of the things taught, or (2) to the lack of informa- 
tion as to the kind of work being done in the school. Where in- 
difference prevails to any great extent, it usually results in poor 
attendance, lack of funds sufficient for the proper support of the 
school, and difficulties growing out of school discipline. 

Inadequate Funds. A difficulty very closely re- 
lated to the one we have just discussed is found in 
the lack of funds necessary to carry on the work of 
the school. 

Why Funds Are Needed. School funds are needed 
for two main purposes : (1) to pay teachers' salaries, 
and (2) to provide the necessary supplies and equip- 
ment, such as sanitary buildings, suitable furniture, 
libraries, maps, charts, globes, etc. 

Salaries. After all, the teacher is the most important 
factor in the making of the school. '' As is the teacher 
so is the school," is an old but a true saying. He 
must not only be able to teach and govern the school ; 
he must know how to arouse public interest in its 
work, procure needed supplies, and overcome various 
other difficulties. He must know how to make the 
school serve the whole community in the largest 
possible measure. Hence, a good teacher is essential 
to the success of the school. But to get good teachers 
school boards must pay attractive salaries. Mr. 
H. W. Foght, in speaking of teachers' salaries, says : 



8 Rural School Management 

• "Public school teachers in the United States receive an average 
annual salary of $485. Rural school teachers instruct the chil- 
dren of 53.7 per cent of the entire population, but get as their 
share only 45.5 per cent of the total amount spent for salaries. 
Their average annual salary is, accordingly, considerably less 
than the amount above stated. Artisans, domestics, and common 
laborers receive better wages than do these teachers." ^ 

The practice of paying low salaries is, therefore, a 
serious drawback to the school because it means, in 
most cases, that the school will have a poor teacher. 

Equipment. Any one who is at all familiar with 
the nature of school work understands the very great 
importance of having suitable teaching equipment. 
It is as absurd to try to conduct a school without the 
necessary aids in the way of libraries, maps, etc., as 
it is to try to run a farm without implements or to build 
a house without tools. Yet a great many schools are 
not supplied with the things really needed, and the 
reason frequently given is that there are no funds 
with which to buy such material. 

The conditions found in the rural schools of a fairly 
progressive, well-to-do county in one of the central 
states may serve to illustrate this point. Of the 110 
schools inspected by a committee of prominent educa- 
tors it was found that : 

(a) 24 had no maps and only 41 had enough maps 
for the teaching of geography and history. 

(b) Only 30 had measuring sticks, only one had a 
balance and weights, and only two had liquid or dry 
measures, for the teaching of arithmetic. 

(c) 56 did not have enough blackboard space. 

(d) No school had a phonograph, and only one a 
museum. 

' U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1914, No. 49, p. 28. 



The School and Its Patrons 



(e) 109 had no equipment for teaching manual 
training. 

(/) 99 had no equipment for teaching agriculture. 

(g) 109 had no equipment for cooking and 108 none 
for sewing. 

(h) The tax levy for school purposes varied from 
nothing to 75 cents on each $100 of the assessed valuation 
of taxable property, the levy in the medium or average 
school being only 40 cents. 

So long as conditions such as these exist, the school 
is doomed to fall short of its highest possibilities. No 
school can do its work as it should be done until it 
is supplied with the equipment which the nature of 
its work requires. 

Reasons for Lack of Funds. This lack of funds 
may be due to either one of two causes. (1) The 
highest tax rate permitted by the constitution or the 
laws of the state may be so low that it does not bring 
in, when levied, a sufficient amount of money for 
school purposes; or (2) through the indifference of 
the school board or patrons the rate actually levied 
may not be high enough to provide an adequate 
income. 

The Legal Limitations. We should recall in this 
connection that one of the principal ways of raising 
school funds is by local taxes. This means that the 
school board levies or designates the rate to be paid, 
and each property owner in the district pays that 
per cent of the assessed value of his property into the 
school treasury. But school boards, and the people 
themselves also, are prohibited by state law or con- 
stitution from levying a rate above a certain amount. 
Now, it may happen in some cases that the highest 
rate that can be levied under the law does not bring 



10 Rural School Management 

in enough money to pay the running expenses and 
supply the needs of the school. In one state, for 
instance, the most that can be levied for rural schools 
is seventy cents on each one hundred dollars of assessed 
valuation. In another state it is sixty-five cents, 
and so on. When the lack of funds is due to this 
cause, " state aid " and a change in the unit of school 
administration are the possible remedies. In some 
states provision is made whereby a school district 
may obtain a gift or donation from the state treasury 
under certain conditions. This is known as State 
Aid. The unit of administration is discussed in a 
later chapter. 

Lack of Interest in the School. It more frequently 
happens, however, that the lack of funds is due to 
lack of interest, which makes the people unwilling to 
have the tax rate made high enough to furnish a suffi- 
cient amount of money. It is the purpose of the next 
chapter to suggest some remedies for just such cases 
as this. 

Summary. A second hindrance to the success of the school is 
the lack of sufficient money for its support. This may be due 
either to (1) legal limitation upon the tax rate that may be levied, 
or (2) the unwillingness of patrons to authorize a sufficient levy. 
Since school funds are needed (1) to pay teachers' salaries, and (2) 
to provide equipment, a lack of funds may result in the school's 
having a poor teacher and inadequate equipment. 

Lack of Organized Effort. Another difficulty met 
with in many schools, especially in rural districts, is 
the lack of any definite organization of patrons for 
the purpose of promoting the school's usefulness to 
the community. 

Organization in Other Fields. It is an old saying 
that in union there is strength. The value of united, 



The School and Its Patrons 11 

organized effort has been demonstrated again and 
again. The practice of forming organizations for 
such purposes is now quite common in a great many 
lines of business. When there is something to be 
accomplished which is of interest or value to several 
people, they find it an advantage to unite in some 
systematic way to bring about the desired result. 
When the people wish to prevent the sale or use of 
intoxicating liquors, for instance, they form temperance 
societies. When the farmers of a community wish to 
improve their methods of cultivating or marketing 
their products, they form granges, farmers' clubs, or 
equity societies. When a man wants to be elected 
to some important state or national office, his friends 
form clubs to help bring about his election. In a 
similar manner teachers have their educational as- 
sociations; merchants, their conventions; physicians, 
their medical societies; laboring men, their unions; 
fruitgrowers, their cooperative associations; the 
churches, their ladies' aid or missionary societies. And 
so it is in almost any line of business we could name. 
The Situation in Schools. Thus we see that the 
value of organized effort is well recognized and the 
practice of forming organizations of various kinds 
has become quite common. The movement is now 
coming into prominence in connection with the man- 
agement of schools. Here it usually takes the form 
of a parents' association of some sort. In city schools 
such organizations are already fairly common, though 
by no means universal. But in rural districts only a 
beginning has been made. While there are a few 
country schools that have succeeded in forming and 
maintaining a parents' organization of some sort, the 
great majority of such schools are still deprived of the 



12 Rural School Management 

benefits that come from a well-organized systematic 
effort for the improvement of the schools. 

Reason for Less Progress in Rural Districts. Per- 
haps the most important reason why organized effort 
has made less progress among rural school patrons 
than in other lines of business is the general neglect 
of the study of rural education by educators. For a 
long time our leading educators were concerned almost 
entirely with city and town schools. Through their 
help teachers were trained and methods of improve- 
ment worked out for city schools. But, until recently, 
country people had no such help. Their teachers were 
not specially trained for rural teaching, and there was 
no one to point out better ways of managing their 
schools. But within the past few years the situation 
has changed very greatly. Some of our best educators 
are now directing their efforts to the improvement of 
rural schools. The beginning which has been made 
in the matter of patrons' organizations in rural com- 
munities is no doubt one of the results of this new 
interest in rural education. 

Lack of leaders and the isolation of country homes 
are other hindrances to organization among rural 
school patrons. Since these are also serious hindrances 
to the wider use of the rural school, they will be dis- 
cussed in connection with our study of the social-center 
movement in a later chapter. 

Summary. Our discussion thus far has served to do two 
things : (1) to explain the functions of the school — what it 
ought to do, and (2) to point out some of the difficulties that keep 
the school from performing its functions in the fullest measure. 
The nature of the school's task makes the help of patrons, the co- 
operation of teacher and parents, essential to its success. Parents, 
as a rule, are not very greatly interested in the work of the school ; 
and their indifference is, to a considerable extent, responsible for 



The School and Its Patrons 13 

irregular attendance or non-attendance of pupils, low teachers' 
salaries, inadequate equipment, and lack of united, organized 
effort in the community in behalf of better schools. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Bagley : The Educative Process, Chapter III. 
Carney : Country Life and the Country School, Chapter VII. 
COLGROVE : The Teacher and the School, Chapter VIII. 
CuBBERLEY : Rural Life and Education, Chapter VII. 
Kern : Among Country Schools, Chapter XI. 
University of Missouri Bulletin, Vol. 16, No. 22 : A Study of the 
Rural Schools of Saline County, Mo. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

Note. In answering questions about "your school," in these 
exercises at the end of the chapters, it is intended that you have 
in mind either the school in which you teach or the one in which 
you are studying. 

1. What, in your opinion, is the relation between teacher and 
patrons in your school? Give specific reasons for your answer. 

2. Enumerate the elements that are included in the term 
"social efficiency." What subjects are now being taught in 
your school to supply each of these elements in the training of 
children ? 

3. What activities, if any, besides the teaching of children, 
are carried on in connection with your school? State the pur- 
pose and describe the method of conducting each. 

4. For what other purposes do you think your school could be 
used successfully ? 

5. How often do the members of the school board visit your 
school ? To what extent do other patrons visit the school ? Keep 
a list of the visits for one month and note the object or purpose of 
each visit. 

6. How, in your opinion, are the facts revealed in answer to 
Exercise 5 to be explained? 

7. How does your school compare with other schools in the 
county in (1) length of term, (2) teacher's salary, (3) library and 
other equipment, (4) amount of tax levy? What explanation 
can you offer for the fact§ disclosed? 



14 Rural School Management 

8. What is the maximum school tax levy permitted under the 
constitution of your state? Is the maximum rate being levied 
at present in your district ? If not, why not ? 

9. Give from your own observation two instances in which 
the people of your community are organized for some definite 
purpose. State the purpose, describe the manner of organization, 
and give results obtained, in each case. 

10. Is there in your community any organization whose pur- 
pose is the improvement of the school? If so, describe in detail 
the form of organization and the nature of its work. If there is 
no such organization, how is the fact to be explained? 

11. Prepare, in outline form, a summary of the chapter. 



CHAPTER II 

HOW TO AROUSE INTEREST AMONG 
PATRONS 

The Problem. We have seen that the indifference 
of patrons is fraught with very serious consequences 
to the school. The question, therefore, of how to 
arouse their interest and secure their cooperation is 
one of the most important problems in the manage- 
ment of the school. What can the teacher do to 
create a widespread, active interest in the work of 
the school? The solution of this problem means 
much for the school and the community. 

Methods of arousing interest in the school may be 
grouped into four main classes : (1) methods of secur- 
ing the cooperation of the school board ; (2) methods 
of making patrons familiar with the work of the school ; 
(3) methods of raising money for needed equipment; 
and (4) methods of getting patrons actively enlisted 
in doing something for the school. These will be 
considered in the order named. 

I. SECURING THE COOPERATION OF THE SCHOOL 
BOARD 

In every community the general management of 
the school is intrusted to the school board. Next to 
the teacher this board is the most important factor in 
the making of the school. 

Importance of the School Board. There are two 
main reasons why the school board occupies such an 
important position and why its cooperation is essential 

15 



16 Rural School Management 

to the school. First. Board members are the officials 
elected by the voters of the district to manage the 
school for the community. Being officials, they have 
certain very important powers in connection with 
the school. They employ the teacher and determine 
the salary to be paid. Within certain limits they can 
fix the rate of taxes, thus controlling to some extent 
the amount of funds available for school purposes. 
The board's approval is necessary before any of the 
regular school funds can be used. Hence it controls 
such matters as making repairs in the schoolhouse, 
providing janitor service, and supplying equipment, 
in so far as these must be paid for out of the regular 
funds. Since the board has such important powers 
in relation to both the teachers and the finances of 
the school, it determines in a considerable measure 
the kind of school the community will have. It is, 
therefore, very unfortunate for any district to have 
a school board which is indifferent, one which does 
not take pride in getting a good teacher and in helping 
the school in every possible way. 

Second. The members of the board are, as a rule, 
among the most influential members of the community. 
It is usually because of the confidence people have in 
them that they are elected to membership on the 
board. And just because of this confidence on the 
part of the patrons a member of the board has it 
within his power to create public sentiment favorable 
to the school. People are generally easily influenced 
by their trusted leaders. Hence the directors should 
be among the stanchest friends and supporters of 
the school. If they are interested and active in school 
matters, they set an example which at least some 
others are sure to follow. 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 17 

How to Interest Board Members. Since the school 
board holds such an important position in relation 
to the school, it is highly necessary that its members 
shall be keenly interested in school affairs. How to 
bring about this condition where it does not already 
exist, is one of the big problems in the management 
of the school. 

Perhaps the most important means of arousing 
interest on the part of school boards is the influence 
of the teacher. There are several things any teacher 
can do to this end. He can visit the members in 
their homes and confer with them on school matters. 
He can have a directors' day in his own school. This 
can be done by inviting the members of the board to 
visit the school on a certain day to give them an op- 
portunity to see what the school is doing and what it 
needs. He might arrange beforehand to have the 
members make talks on parents' day or to the pupils, 
or do something else which will emphasize their official 
relation to the school. In most cases members of the 
board will appreciate being recognized as leaders. 

Some teachers have found it possible to interest 
the school board by obtaining the help of the women 
of the community. If there is a mothers' circle in 
the school or a ladies' aid society in connection with 
the church, the teacher can usually enlist the support 
of the organization by explaining the importance of 
the measures he wishes adopted. When there is no 
such organization, a mothers' meeting can easily be 
held at the school to get the women interested. When 
this is done, they may be depended on to use their 
influence with the school board. 

Other teachers have succeeded in gaining the desired 
end through the influence of the children. One method 



18 Rural School Management 

is to organize the pupils in a campaign for some specific 
purpose or measure. If they have badges or buttons 
to wear, it will add to their interest and, perhaps, to 
the effectiveness of their work. They are then asked 
to intercede with the school board for the thing wanted. 
Wherever it is possible to grant their wish, the board 
is not likely to be deaf to their plea. 

One rural teacher succeeded in securing the co- 
operation of her board in the following manner. A 
few days before the close of the first month of the 
school term she called at the home of the president 
of the board. After a pleasant little visit with the 
family, she conversed with the board official on matters 
pertaining to the school. Before leaving she secured 
his promise to have a meeting of the school board 
held at the schoolhouse at the end of the first month. 
When the members came to the school for the meet- 
ing, she received them courteously, conversing with 
them freely and frankly. She explained that, as 
her employers, the board had a right to know how 
she was discharging her duties and what difficulties 
she met with. She described what she had been 
trying to do and what she would like to do, frequently 
asking the board's opinion and advice. At the close 
of the meeting the board was invited, and consented, 
to hold its next regular meeting at the schoolhouse. 
Here, again, the teacher took the board into her con- 
fidence and sought their advice and help. The board 
then decided of its own accord to hold its regular 
meetings during the rest of the term at the school- 
house with the teacher present. The result was that 
the board took a special interest and pride in the 
school and helped to advance its interests in many 
ways. 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 19 

In some states laws have been passed establishing 
county school hoard conventions. These meetings are 
held once a year, and the expenses of those attending 
are paid out of the funds of their local districts. It 
has been found that when school directors meet in 
this way they get new ideas which they can put into 
effect in their own districts. In addition to exchang- 
ing views and plans with each other, they get help 
from the county superintendent and usually from 
some leading educator or expert employed expressly 
to discuss matters of importance before school boards. 
The result is a deeper interest in, and a more efficient 
management of, the schools on the part of boards of 
directors. In one state a prominent educator said : 
'' The enactment of the county school board conven- 
tion law is the best school measure passed in this state 
in the last quarter of a century." 

A great many county superintendents set apart 
one day or session of the county teachers' association 
or institute as directors' day. The object is to get 
the directors and teachers together for a conference 
on matters that are important for the success of the 
schools. Here, also, the board members exchange 
views with each other and get suggestions from the 
teachers and especially from the experts in charge 
of the association. The chief difficulty with this 
plan lies in getting a large attendance of directors. 
Unless some provision is made for defraying the ex- 
penses of those who attend, those who are least in- 
terested in schools are the most likely to be absent 
from the meeting. However, the plan has given 
good results in many counties and is well worth try- 
ing where no other provision is made for a convention 
of school board members. 



20 Rural School Management 

Summary. The school board is a very important factor in 
the making of the school, first, because of its official powers, and 
second, because of the influence of its members on other patrons. 
Methods of arousing interest among board members are : (1) the 
personal influence and work of the teacher, including the enlisting 
of the assistance of women and children ; (2) county school board 
conventions; and (3) directors' day at county teachers' associa- 
tions or institutes. 



U. ACQUAINTING PARENTS WITH THE WORK OF THE 
SCHOOLS 

Much of the indifference of parents is undoubtedly 
due to their lack of knowledge of what the school is 
doing or trying to do for their children. If this is 
true, then one way of overcoming such lack of interest 
is to enlighten them on these points. 

Personal Visits. Visits by the teacher to the 
homes of parents will do much to enlist their interest 
and cooperation. Instances are quite frequent in 
which parents do not even know the teacher of their 
children. This condition favors prejudice and fault- 
finding on the part of such parents. Since parent 
and teacher do not even know each other, there is 
necessarily no bond of interest or sympathy, nor any 
personal tie between them. A visit to the home may 
establish a feeling of mutual interest and friendliness. 

The teacher should visit the home of every pupil 
at least once during the school term. In making 
such a visit there are a few things which the teacher 
should be careful to observe. The visit should be 
made, if possible, at the time when it will interfere 
least with the home or other duties of the parent. 
A good plan is for the teacher to walk home with 
the children after school. In some cases he may 
spend the night there. Care must be taken in all 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 21 

cases to make the occasion a friendly, cordial visit, 
not a fashionable call. He should impress the parent, 
in a tactful way, with his genuine interest in, and 
hopes and plans for, the children who come from that 
home. In taking his leave he should extend to the 
parent a sincere and cordial invitation to visit the 
school, expressing his desire for the parent's help 
and cooperation in the work he is trying to do. Such 
a visit will tend to give the parent a favorable im- 
pression of the teacher and, perhaps, a kindly interest 
in the affairs of the school. It will, at least, establish 
a friendly relationship between the two parties to 
the child's education — the home and the school. 
This is an important step toward making patrons 
familiar with the work of the school and arousing 
an active interest in its success. 

School Notes in Local Newspapers. The news- 
paper is regarded as one of the very best ways of 
conveying information we wish people to have. It 
has been found to be an excellent method of acquaint- 
ing patrons with school affairs. Editors, as a rule, 
are glad to publish school news for two reasons. First, 
they are public-spirited men and are anxious to help 
any movement that is a real benefit to the community ; 
and second, school news frequently makes the paper 
more interesting and, therefore, adds to its popularity. 

The use of the newspaper is an opportunity, then, 
which the teacher ought to seize. It has a twofold 
value to the school. In the first place, the writing 
of the news items by the pupils is an excellent aid in 
teaching language and composition. When pupils 
know that what they write is to be printed in the 
county newspaper, they have a strong motive, a deep 
interest, which will lead them to do their best. But 



22 Rural School Management 

the teacher must, in all cases, supervise the work of 
the pupils. He must help in selecting the events or 
topics to write about and see that pupils get the items 
written in correct form. 

In the second place, the school notes are valuable 
as a means of imparting information to patrons. To 
serve this purpose well the school news column should 
always contain information that is really worth while. 
It should be an important message or communication 
from the school to its patrons, telling them the things 
they ought to know about the educational affairs of 
their community. Such matters as the following 
would probably make interesting reading for most 
patrons: the transactions of the school board; the 
financial affairs of the district, such as the total in- 
come, expenses, indebtedness, assessed valuation, tax 
rate as compared with other districts ; library statistics 
or facts ; the school's equipment and its needs ; recent 
improvements and others contemplated ; community 
affairs that are in any way related to the school; 
special days observed or programs given; visitors; 
work of the various classes; special work in agri- 
culture, domestic science, manual training ; the school 
enumeration, enrollment, attendance ; the doings of 
organizations connected with the school, such as 
literary society, school chorus or orchestra, and athletic 
teams. The sum of the whole matter is that the 
school notes should give, as far as possible, a true 
picture of the life of the school, and of the community 
in its relation to school affairs. 

This use of the newspaper is already fairly common 
in town schools. It is just as important, if not more 
important, for the rural school. Newspaper editors 
are always glad to have a correspondent in every 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 23 

district or section of the county. One method of 
handling the school news is for the teacher to serve 
as local correspondent, furnishing school items and 
other items of interest to the community. If some 
one else is serving as correspondent, then the teacher, 
with the assistance of the pupils, may supply him 
with the school items. 

Parents' Day. A very common complaint heard 
among teachers is that so many of their patrons never 
visit the school. This failure to visit the school may 
be due to any one of several causes. The pressure of 
work at home may keep some parents away. The 
distance from the schoolhouse may be a hindrance 
to others. But no doubt the real reason in a vast 
majority of cases is the lack of knowledge of what the 
school is doing and a consequent lack of genuine in- 
terest in its work. It is very desirable, therefore, 
that some way be found to get parents to visit the 
school and see for themselves what is going on. One 
method, for instance, is to provide a special occasion 
to be known as parents' day, and to invite all of the 
patrons to visit the school at that time. 

There are various ways of conducting an event of 
this kind. Perhaps the following illustrations will 
suggest some ideas that may be used in other schools. 

In one school the teacher announced to her pupils 
early in the term that she expected to have their 
parents visit the school on a certain day which sKe 
named. She explained that in order for the parents 
to see what the pupils were really doing it would be 
necessary to have such specimens of their work as 
could be kept, and that these specimens would be 
selected from time to time from their regular school 
work. Just a few days before the appointed date the 



24 Rural School Management 

teacher and pupils prepared very attractive invita- 
tions and sent one to every family in the district. 
This written invitation was, a little later, reenforced 
by a verbal invitation from the teacher delivered 
either by telephone or personal visit. When the 
appointed afternoon came and the visitors arrived, 
the teacher proceeded with the regular classes until 
time for recess. The school was then dismissed for 
the day and the rest of the afternoon spent in examin- 
ing the school exhibit and in conversation, for the 
most part, about the school and its work. There 
was no special program. The teacher mingled freely 
with her guests, courteous to all alike. The day 
closed with the serving of simple refreshments which 
the teacher and pupils had prepared for the occasion. 
The visitors went away with a very favorable impres- 
sion of the teacher, and many of them expressed 
sincere wishes for the success of the school. 

In another district the observance of parents' day 
was more on the order of a neighborhood picnic and 
clean-up day. A date was selected and all the parents 
invited to spend the entire day at the school. During 
the forenoon the regular work of the school was carried 
on without change or special features. At noon a 
basket lunch, furnished by the patrons, was served 
on the school grounds. This was a social hour during 
which parents, pupils, and teacher mingled freely 
with each other in friendly conversation. The after- 
noon was devoted to " cleaning up " the school premises. 
The teacher had carefully planned just what he wished 
to have done. The men and boys set about improving 
the school grounds. All rubbish, all unsightly objects, 
and all unnecessary articles were removed ; ditches 
were filled and the grounds drained ; flower beds laid 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 25 

out and a school garden located. The women and 
girls devoted their attention to the interior of the 
building. When the day was over patrons had seen 
the school at its regular work, and parents and teacher 
had met and united in a common cause. Cleaner, 
better school surroundings and a deeper and more 
.widespread interest in the school were the results. 

We have now seen how two teachers handled the 
parents' day event. The methods have at least two 
points in common : (1) They succeeded in getting a 
great many patrons to visit the school and inspect a 
part of the work being done; (2) a deeper interest 
in the school was aroused. After all, the results are 
the important thing. The details of the plan to be 
used must 'be worked out by the teacher and should 
be adapted to the conditions which exist in his district. 

School Exhibits. The school exhibit is one of the 
very best methods of informing parents concerning 
the work of the school and of bringing them into closer 
sympathy and cooperation with the teacher and the 
school. The local exhibit should be conducted in 
connection with parents' day exercises, a social center 
meeting, or some other public gathering at the school- 
house. The display should be made up of specimens 
of pupils' work selected from as many different lines 
as possible. It should include such items as booklets, 
maps, drawings, compositions, construction work, 
articles made by the domestic art and manual train- 
ing classes, a nature study and geography cabinet 
containing material collected by pupils, flowers and 
agricultural products from the school garden. All 
of this material can be properly labeled by the children 
as a part of their school work, classified, and carefully 
arranged by the teacher. It is very important that 



26 Rural School Management 

every patron of the school see the exhibit and that 
the teacher be present to confer with parents, make ex- 
planations, and point out lines of improvement. 

In a great many sections of the country the school 
exhibit idea has been extended to include a township 
or county school fair. In such cases the usual plan 
is to start with a local exhibit, such as we have de- 
scribed. From this exhibit the best specimens are 
selected by competent judges and labeled with a blue 
ribbon. The material thus selected is then sent to 
the township or county fair, where it is entered along 
with similar material from various other schools. 

The following description of the county school fair 
held in a Virginia county points out a good method 
of procedure and indicates the value of such an event 
in arousing a strong school sentiment among both 
teachers and patrons. 

"They came in large groups, often by schools, bedecked with 
their school colors, waving school banners, giving their school 
yells, and singing their school songs. It was the gala day for the 
county public schools, and even early in the morning the holiday 
spirit was in the air. 

"By ten o'clock between 3000 and 4000 people had assembled 
at the School Fair exhibit hall. The entrance to this hall was 
then thrown open, and this vast throng of people surged in. 
Their eyes fell upon a unique exhibit — different from anything 
they had ever seen at any other fair. Near the entrance was a 
long table loaded down with loaves of bread, biscuit, cakes, pies, 
homemade candy, butter, jellies, pickles, canned peaches, pears, 
and tomatoes. On another table was the Domestic Art Exhibit 
— shirt waists, aprons, handkerchiefs, and a large group of dolls 
tastefully dressed in the latest fashion by the school children of 
the primary classes. On another table was the Flower and Nature 
Study Exhibit — ferns, chrysanthemums, geraniums, dahlias, and 
collections of wild flowers. Further down the hall was the table 
containing the Agricultural Exhibit. On this table were piled 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 27 

ears of corn, ears of popcorn, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, Irish 
potatoes, and black-eye peas. In a corner was the Manual Train- 
ing Exhibit, containing bookcases, writing tables, picture frames, 
brooms, farm rakes, axe handles, shuck doormats, baskets, and 
rabbit 'gums.' 

"Nor had the literary work of the school been neglected. A 
large space was occupied by this department; on a table were 
a number of carefully prepared compositions. They were not 
upon such abstract subjects as 'Intellect,' 'Faith,' 'Patience,' but 
dealt with concrete, practical themes, such as 'Good Roads,' 
'The Value of Scientific Methods of Farming,' 'How to Make a 
Country Home Comfortable and Attractive,' 'The Cause and 
Prevention of Consumption,' 'The House Fly a Menace to 
Health.' There were also numerous specimens of writing and 
drawing, and the walls of one side of the hall were decorated with 
skillfully drawn maps of the county and the state." ^ 

One point is strongly emphasized here : School fair 
day should he a great day for the whole county. It 
must be an event which will bring a great crowd of 
people together. If the school fair alone cannot be 
depended on to get the people out, then it should be 
held in connection with some other event, such, for 
instance, as the county agricultural fair, farmers' 
" round-up," or county graduation day. But, what- 
ever else the program for the day may include, there 
should be a definite time for the inspection and judg- 
ing of the school exhibits and awarding of prizes. 
Everybody present should have ample opportunity 
to see what the various schools are doing as revealed 
by the specimens of work entered in the exhibits. 
Provision should also be made for a school parade 
in which the teachers and pupils from all the schools 
take part. Those from each district should march 
in a group, wear their school colors, and carry appro- 
priate banners. Athletic sports and contests between 

^Quoted by Curtis in Play and Recreation, pp. 73-4. 



28 Rural School Management 

the various schools will add greatly to the success 
of the fair. The school fair, conducted in some such 
way as this, cannot fail to make patrons more familiar 
with the work of the schools and to increase public 
interest in education. 

No doubt a great many more county superintendents 
would organize and conduct county school fairs if 
they knew their teachers would help in the matter. 
One way in which the teacher can aid the movement, 
therefore, is to suggest to the superintendent the 
advisability of undertaking the project. If enough 
teachers would do this, no doubt the fair would be held. 



m. RAISING MONEY FOR EQUIPMENT 

We have already learned that the lack of funds is 
one of the chief drawbacks to the school in many 
localities. We have seen that this situation is due in 
some instances to the lack of wealth in the district 
— the low assessed value of the taxable property ; 
but in a majority of cases it is due to the unwilling- 
ness of school boards or patrons to levy taxes ade- 
quate to the school's needs. In either case the teacher 
is confronted with the problem of how to raise funds 
with which to buy the equipment necessary to the 
success of the school. 

By right, all of the money needed for school supplies 
should come from the regular school funds of the dis- 
trict. Accordingly, the school board should alwaj^s 
be asked to provide the necessary equipment. In 
case the board hesitates or refuses to do so, some of 
the methods previously described may be used to 
enlist the interest of the members and secure the 
funds required. 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 29 

But if these methods fail or if the regular school 
funds are not adequate, there are many other means 
which may be used. Ice cream socials and basket 
suppers are among the oldest and most widely used. 
In the case of the ice cream social, the milk and other 
materials are usually donated by the patrons, while 
the ice cream is made and served by the pupils under 
the direction of the teacher. The social should always 
be held, if possible, in the schoolhouse or on the school 
premises. For the basket supper, each girl and 
woman in the district is asked to prepare a nice lunch 
and put it in an attractive basket or box. A meeting 
is arranged for at the schoolhouse to which the whole 
community is invited. At this meeting the lunches 
are sold at auction. Popularity contests are sometimes 
conducted in connection with the box supper. The 
usual plan is to offer a cake as a prize to the most 
popular lady present. The winner is selected by per- 
mitting people to vote for their choice at so much a 
vote. Considerable sums have been raised through 
good-natured, friendly contests of this sort. 

Stereopticon entertainments, lectures, and musical 
programs are excellent methods of raising money for 
school purposes. Every school should have a stere- 
opticon and slides of its own. But this is not always 
the case. It is the custom in some sections for the 
county authorities to purchase an instrument and 
place it at the disposal of the county superintendent 
of schools or the county farm agent. Where this is 
done, the lantern can usually be borrowed or rented 
for a small fee by any teacher who wants to give an 
entertainment for library or other school purposes. 
In case the county does not own a lantern, one may 
frequently be borrowed from other sources. Again, 



30 Rural School Management 

it is frequently possible to secure, at very small cost, 
a good speaker or lecturer from some near-by town 
or educational institution. The proceeds from the 
lecture entertainment may be greatly increased, in 
many cases, by arousing a friendly contest between 
some of the classes in school in the sale of tickets. A 
good musical program can often be arranged through 
the assistance of local musicians. If this is not possible, 
then a splendid evening's entertainment can be given 
with a victrola or phonograph. 

The school bazaar is another method which has given 
good results in many cases. This method consists in 
having a sale of articles made by the pupils, such, 
for instance, as aprons, handkerchiefs, lace, embroidery, 
candy, and articles made by the manual training class. 
Interested patrons will often donate various articles for 
the sale. A vegetable day for the collection of products 
from the school garden and such things as patrons 
may donate to be sold in town is a similar plan. 

Entertainments appropriate to special days have been 
used successfully in many schools. A Hallowe'en 
party netted one school a considerable sum. The 
schoolroom was arranged in keeping with the idea — 
Jack-o'-lanterns in the corners, doors and windows 
draped with leaves and vines, and blackboard and 
walls decorated with crepe paper cuttings to represent 
cats, owls, snakes, and bats. The cloakroom was 
used as the witch's tent. Charges were made for the 
fortune telling and for the refreshments served. In 
another school a party embodying the valentine 
idea was held. A post office for the exchange of 
valentines, a valentine and candy booth, a refreshment 
stand, and a tent for a gypsy fortune teller constituted 
the main equipment. The money was raised from 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 31 

the sale of valentines, candy, and refreshments and 
from fees paid for having fortunes told. A Wash- 
ington's reception, a Thanksgiving program, and an 
Easter egg hunt are other methods of the same general 
type. 

The school quilt is an easy and simple method of 
raising funds. A piece of common cloth is cut into 
small squares. These squares are distributed among 
the pupils with instructions to embroider on the square 
the name of any person who will pay a small fee to 
have his name on the quilt. 

A school play, a home talent play, an old folks' spelling 
match, tag day, athletic contests with other schools, are 
other methods which have been found fruitful in rais- 
ing money for the school. 

In any or all attempts to raise money for the school 
there are a few things which should be borne clearly 
in mind. The foremost purpose, of course, is to get 
working tools for the school — to get library books, 
maps, globes, charts, simple laboratory equipment, 
play apparatus, pictures, a stereopticon, a victrola, 
or anything, in fact, which will make for a better 
school. But this is not the only thing to be accom- 
plished through the money-making endeavor. The 
school will be brought into public attention. It will 
receive a certain amount of favorable advertising. 
Through the method adopted for raising money 
parents will get better acquainted with the teacher 
and each other. They will learn more about what 
the school is trying to do, what it needs, and how 
they can help in its work. 

Summary. There are various ways of raising money for school 
equipment. In attempting to raise money for the school the 
following objects should be kept in view : (1) to equip the school 



32 Rural School Management 

for better work; (2) to bring the people of the community to- 
gether at the schoolhouse for a common purpose ; (3) to make 
patrons more familiar with the actual work and conditions of the 
school; (4) to arouse a public interest and pride in the school. 



IV. SCHOOL PATRONS' ASSOCIATIONS 

It has been pointed out that the principle of organ- 
ized effort is now widely used in the form of business 
or commercial organizations, political clubs, and so 
on. We have also seen that teachers are beginning 
to avail themselves of the benefits that come from the 
united, systematic cooperation of all the people in 
the community who are or should be interested in the 
success of the school. 

Types of Organization. To this end school patrons' 
organizations are coming into vogue. These organiza- 
tions are of two main types: (1) those that include 
in their membership only the mothers of the children 
in the district; (2) those that are open to all of the 
citizens and taxpayers of the community. Organiza- 
tions of the first type are usually called mothers' 
circles, or clubs, while those of the second type are 
known as parent-teacher associations or school im- 
provement associations. The mothers' circle prob- 
ably has its greatest usefulness in connection with 
the kindergarten and primary department of the 
city schools. Where there is to be only one organiza- 
tion for the school as a whole, the other type seems 
preferable. 

Functions of a Patrons' Organization. Lack of 
interest among patrons, as we have seen, is the most 
serious hindrance to the highest success of the school. 
We are trying in this section to see what the teacher 
can do to overcome this difficulty. Three main 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 33 

methods have been considered ; namely, securing the 
cooperation of the school board, making patrons more 
familiar with the work of the school, and enlisting the 
people in an effort to raise money for school improve- 
ment. The parent-teacher association is a fourth 
method. To arouse a deeper and more widespread 
interest in the educational affairs of the community is 
one of the chief functions of such an organization. 

Just how does the parents' association help to bring 
about this result? It has been found that people, 
as a rule, are more interested in any enterprise if they 
have some active part in it. One is more likely to 
be interested in Sunday school, for instance, if he 
teaches a class, or in a picnic if he is asked to serve 
on a committee or perform some other definite task 
connected with it. In the same way a patron may 
be expected to become more interested in the school 
if he can be induced to take some part in its affairs. 
Getting the patron to do something for the school is 
a good way to overcome his indifference. Again, 
interest begets interest. One often becomes interested 
in a thing simply because his friends or neighbors are 
interested in it. If the teacher is thoroughly alive 
and enthusiastic, he can easily arouse interest in at 
least a few of his patrons. Then, if these can be en- 
listed in an active organization, their influence will 
spread, and others will become interested in what 
they are doing. In these two ways, then, the parents' 
association ought to be, and usually is, an important 
factor in creating and spreading an educational spirit 
throughout the community. 

A second function of the association is to bring 
about a united effort for a better school. It is to get 
parents to pull together and with the teacher for the 



34 Rural School Management 

kind of school their children ought to have. The 
word cooperation expresses this function of the or- 
ganization. Cooperation means that people are not 
only interested, but that they are actually working 
together to accomplish some end or purpose. The 
members of a baseball or basket ball team, for instance, 
cooperate in trying to defeat their opponents. In 
like manner there should be team work in school 
affairs. Parents and teachers should work together 
in the ways that are most helpful in making the school 
the best possible place for the training of children. 

A third function of the association is to help make 
the school a means of profit and pleasure to the whole 
community. This might be considered as a phase 
or aspect of the function described in the last para- 
graph. But what we wish to emphasize is that the 
association is not limited in its work to the improve- 
ment of the school merely as a place for educating 
children. The present-day school has a wider mission. 
One of its functions is to help make life more profitable 
and enjoyable for all the people in the community, 
adults as well as children. To do this most effectively 
requires the assistance and cooperation of the citizens 
who are to receive the benefits from this wider use of 
the school. But it is well understood that cooperation 
— mutual helpfulness — is always more effective when 
the people concerned are definitely united and organ- 
ized so they can plan and direct their work to best 
advantage. 

The functions, then, of a parent-teacher association 
are : (1) to awaken a public-spirited interest in educa- 
tion throughout the community; (2) to get patrons 
definitely united in a systematic effort to have the 
best possible type of school for their children; and 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 35 

(3) to enlist all of the people of the district in a cam- 
paign for a better community. 

Difficulties Met With. It has been found that 
there are several hindrances to the spread of organiza- 
tion among school patrons. These difficulties vary, 
of course, with different communities. 

In rural districts one of the greatest drawbacks to 
the movement is the timidity of the teachers. It is 
not surprising that so few rural teachers have under- 
taken this phase of school work. Many of them are 
comparatively young and have had little experience 
in teaching. Only a very few have had any experience 
or special training along this particular line. Hence, 
they lack confidence in their own ability and very 
naturally hesitate to undertake a new line of work. 
But the task is not so difficult as it may seem to such 
teachers. It should be remembered that there are 
always at least a few patrons in the district who are 
willing to help in any movement for the betterment 
of their school. If the teacher will study the matter 
enough to be able to form in his own mind a definite 
plan of procedure and will then call upon a few of 
the interested patrons for their assistance, the success 
of the movement is fairly assured. The best way to 
overcome timidity is to feel reasonably sure that one 
knows how to go at the thing to be done. The main 
purpose of the rest of this chapter is to point out a 
method of forming and conducting a patrons' organiza- 
tion which an inexperienced teacher may use with 
reasonable assurance of success. 

Another difficulty frequently encountered, especially 
in rural schools, is the lack of leadership. To start 
an organization there must be a good leader, some 
one who understands the movement and can explain 



36 Rural School Management 

its benefits, one who can get others interested and 
wiUing to help in the matter. In the towns there 
are usually people upon whom the teacher can depend 
for this assistance, but in the country it is more difficult. 

This difficulty may be easily overcome in most cases 
if the teacher has in mind a fairly definite method of 
procedure. Through a little personal work he will 
be able to find one or more influential patrons who 
will be willing to serve as leaders in getting the or- 
ganization formed. 

How to Organize the Association. In most com- 
munities the teacher must be the leading spirit, both 
in having a patrons' association organized and in 
conducting its affairs. This does not mean that he 
should hold the principal office or take the most promi- 
nent part in public. It means rather that he must be 
the chief adviser and counselor for those who are in 
charge of the organization. It is important, there- 
fore, that he have fairly definite ideas as to how 
the association is to be formed, how its meetings 
should be conducted, and what it may do to be of the 
greatest benefit to the community. 

In forming the organization a good method is to pro- 
ceed in some such manner as follows : 

1. Make definite arrangements beforehand with some influen- 
tial patron to serve as leader or chief spokesman at the first 
meeting. 

2. Arrange to have a meeting of all the patrons at the school- 
house. A parents' day, or some special school program, may- 
furnish an occasion for the meeting. 

3. After the school exercises, have the meeting organized 
by the election of a chairman. Then present, or have some one 
previously selected present, one or two specific needs of the school 
for consideration. Cleaning up the schoolhouse and premises would 
be a good project to start with, because all could take part in it. 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 37 

4. When all have agreed to help in the projects proposed, 
have the leader or spokesman previously chosen present in as 
tactful and convincing a manner as possible the matter of a 
permanent patrons' association. 

5. When this has been agreed upon, have the meeting elect 
a temporary president and secretary, select a committee on con- 
stitution and by-laws, and set a time for the next meeting. 

The meeting may then adjourn, and in all probability 
a vast majority of the patrons will be enthusiastically 
interested in the new movement. In making the 
preliminary preparations steps should be taken to 
keep the meeting from being so long as to become tire- 
some. The school exercises before the meeting should 
be short ; the persons selected to make the leading talks 
should speak briefly and to the point. If these pre- 
cautions are taken, the meeting will end happily, and 
the association will be well on its way to success. 

At the second meeting the constitution and by-laws 
should be adopted, the permanent officers elected, 
and the standing committees provided for in the by- 
laws appointed. This completes the organization, and 
the association is now ready to take up some of the 
things mapped out for it to do. 

Reference was made above to the appointment of 
a committee on constitution and by-laws. The teacher 
is very likely either to be appointed to membership 
on this committee or to be called on by it for assistance. 
In either case he will have an excellent opportunity 
to serve the association by keeping its machinery or 
organization as simple as possible. The constitution 
should be a brief simple statement of just the things 
necessary to make the association a definite working 
body. Some such form as the following might be 
used : 



38 Rural School Management 



Article I. Name 

The name of this organization shall be the Parents' Association 
(or School Improvement Association) of . . . School. 

Article II. Purpose 

The purpose of the Association shall be to unite the teachers 
and patrons of the school in an effort to improve the school and 
make it of greater service to the community. 

Article III. Members 

All friends of education who are willing to cooperate in a 
movement for school betterment may become members. 

Article IV. Officers 

The officers of the association shall be a president, a vice 
president, and a secretary-treasurer. 

Article V. Meetings 

The regular meetings of the Association shall be held at the 

schoolhouse on in each month. Special meetings 

may be called by the president. 

Article VI. Amendments 

This constitution may be amended by a majority vote of all 
the members of the Association at any regular meeting. 

The by-laws should set forth briefly such matters 
as : (1) duties, time and method of election, and 
length of term, of officers; (2) names and duties of 
such standing committees as may be deemed necessary, 
such, for instance, as Membership Committee, Program 
Committee, Social Committee, etc. ; (3) an order of 
business. 

Thus it is seen that preparing the constitution and 
by-laws is a simple matter. In fact, if the teacher is 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 39 

armed with a few facts such as we have tried to de- 
scribe, the entire process of getting the organization 
formed and started on its work is simple and easy. 

In several of the states there already exists a state 
organization whose function is to bring about the 
•formation of patrons' associations. This state or- 
ganization, through special organizers or county 
superintendents of schools, tries to perfect county 
organizations. The officers of the county organiza- 
tion, in turn, look after the formation of local associa- 
tions. The following quotation from a recent school 
bulletin 1 illustrates the usual method of procedure 
where these state or county organizations have been 
formed. 

1. Arrange for a school entertainment. It is a good plan 
to have a "Mothers' or Parents' Day," with students' work on 
exhibition. The children may write the invitations. Reach every 
parent in the district. 

2. At the conclusion of the meeting have some one, selected 
beforehand, present the plans of the School Improvement Asso- 
ciation work. These remarks should be reenforced by others 
who are familiar with and favorable to the work. 

3. Have Constitution read. 

4. Appoint a committee to secure the names of those who 
will become members. 

5. Elect from this list a president and secretary. 

6. The president should appoint a membership committee to 
report at the next meeting, or ask each member to pledge another 
member for that occasion. 

7. A day should be selected not more than two weeks distant 
to complete the organization; that is, to elect remaining officers 
and plan work. 

8. Consult with teachers and find the thing that most needs 
doing. Then do that thing. Do not attempt too much at first. 
Often house-cleaning is the first need. 

1 School Improvement Associations, State Department of Educa- 
tion, Arkansas, 



40 Rural School Management 

9. Have something of interest at each meeting that patrons 
may have a twofold reason for attending, interest in the work 
and an entertaining afternoon. 

10. Committees should be appointed at the second meeting, or 
as they are needed. 

Conducting the Meetings. Practice differs with 
reference to the character of meetings of the associa- 
tion. In some places two kinds of meetings are held 
— one a purely business session, the other an enter- 
tainment. In other places the two aspects are com- 
bined in the same meeting. Local conditions, such 
as the wishes of the members, the material available 
for entertainments, the amount of business to be 
done, will have to determine which method should be 
used in any given community. In either case the 
meeting will accomplish the best results if it is con- 
ducted in a straightforward, businesslike way. It is 
customary in most places to have a fairly definite 
order of procedure for the business session. The fol- 
lowing is an illustration of such an order of business : 

1. Call to order by the president. 

2. Reading of the minutes by the secretary. 

3. Reports of standing committees. 

4. Reports of special committees. 

5. Discussion of the main business of the meeting. 

6. Suggestions for the good of the association. 

7. Adjournment or entertainment. 

It is not necessary that such a program shall be 
followed slavishly. It may be varied or changed as 
occasion demands, but there should be no waste of 
time, no floundering around for want of knowing 
what to do. Those in charge of the meeting should 
know just what is to be done and go at it in a business- 
like way. 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 41 

Lines of Work. Another matter of importance is 
to know what lines of work the association may profit- 
ably take up. Here, again, local conditions will have 
to decide. Some of the things which are usually 
undertaken by such organizations are named in the 
following list: 

1. Improving the school premises, such as repairing, improving, 
painting, and decorating the schoolhouse ; beautifying the school 
grounds and providing play facilities; meeting sanitary require- 
ments in school furniture, drinking fountains, etc. 

2. Providing needed school equipment, such as libraries, 
laboratory supplies, classroom aids, victrola, stereopticon, etc. 

3. Conducting boys' and girls' clubs, school fairs, industrial 
contests, play festivals, etc. 

4. Observing special days, such as Parents' Day, Arbor Day, 
Peace Day, Public Health Day, patriotic days, etc. 

5. Agitation of needed reforms in school laws and policies, 
such as changes in unit of organization, consolidation, methods 
of apportioning school moneys, etc. 

Since all of these matters are discussed somewhat 
at length in later chapters, they may be passed over 
here without further comment. 

Summary. A school patrons' association is one of the very 
best agencies for arousing an interest in, and promoting coopera- 
tion for the welfare of, the school and the community. In a great 
many schools, and in rural schools especially, the responsibility 
for the success of such an organization rests chiefly on the teacher. 
To meet this responsibility the teacher should know how to get 
the association organized, how its meetings should be conducted, 
and what lines of work may be most profitably undertaken. 

Other Methods of Arousing Interest among Patrons. 
We have now considered four ways of bringing the 
school and its patrons into closer touch with each 
other: (1) by enlisting the cooperation of the school 
board ; (2) by making patrons more familiar with the 



42 Rural School Management 

work of the school; (3) by providing needed equip- 
ment through various money-raising devices; (4) by 
organizing and conducting a parent-teacher or school 
improvement association in connection with the 
school. Various other ways are open to the resourceful 
teacher. Mention should be made, especially, of boys' 
and girls' clubs, and the social center movement. But 
these agencies are treated in later chapters, hence a 
discussion of them may be omitted here. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

National Congress of Mothers: How to Organize Parents* Asso- 
ciations or Mothers' Circles in Public Schools. 

State Department of Education of Alabama : Bulletin No. 41 : 
Alabama School Improvement Association. 

State Department of Education of Arkansas, Outline for the 
Organization of School Improvement Associations. 

State Commissioner of Delaware : Parent-Teacher Handbook. 

State Department of Education of South Carolina, Bulletin VII : 
South Carolina School Improvement Association. 

State Department of Public Instruction of Virginia: The School 
and Civic League Bulletin. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. Point out some of the evidences of interest or lack of 
interest in the school on the part of your present school board. 

2. Describe a method, not mentioned in the text, of arousing 
interest among school board members. 

3. Write, as if for the local newspaper, some items which 
you think would be interesting news for the patrons of your school. 

4. Describe in detail the preparation you would make for a 
parents' day in your school and tell how you would conduct the 
event. 

5. Is it the custom in your community for the teacher to 
visit in the homes of pupils? Describe a visit which you have 
made or have known the teacher to make in the home of some 
patron of the school. 



How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 4S 

6. Enumerate the things being done in your school which you 
think would be appropriate material for a school exhibit or fair. 

7. Name some methods of raising money for equipment, 
other than those mentioned in the text, which you have seen used 
or think could be used successfully in your school. Describe one 
such method in detail. 

8. Make out what you think would be a good program for a 
meeting of a parent-teacher association in your school. 

9. Arrange in the form of an outline the various methods of 
arousing interest among patrons described in this chapter. 

10. Name and describe any other method which you have seen 
used or have heard or read about. 



CHAPTER III 
SCHOOL HYGIENE 

Meaning of School Hygiene. If you look in the 
dictionary you will find the word hygiene pronounced 
with three syllables and defined as " the science of 
the preservation of health." This really means that 
hygiene is the study which tells us how to care for and 
use our bodies in order to keep them healthy and 
free from any defects. School hygiene deals with 
the conditions and work of the school in so far as 
they affect the health of pupils. It tells us what 
sort of place the schoolhouse and its surroundings 
ought to be from the standpoint of health, how we 
may discover the physical condition of pupils, and 
how we should deal with those whose bodies are not 
sound in every respect. 

I. FUNCTIONS OF SCHOOL HYGIENE 

Importance of Health. The importance of health 
is so well understood that it needs only a brief com- 
ment here. A sound body is one of the most valuable 
possessions a person can have. It is important, first, 
as a source of happiness. Disease and physical in- 
firmities rob life of much of its enjoyment. T.hey 
bring suffering or discomfort to the person afflicted 
and, in many cases, worry and distress to his relatives 
and friends. Poor health is no doubt the greatest 
single foe to happiness. 

44 



School Hygiene 45 



In the second place, health makes for success in life. 
In any trade or profession physical vigor is essential 
to the highest success. One can do his very best 
work only when he feels well and is free from any 
physical handicaps. Poor health therefore renders 
one less efficient and, if sufficiently serious, may lead 
to failure. 

The health of every individual is important, in the 
third place, from the social point of view, i.e. in its 
effects on other people. If one is in poor health, 
his usefulness to the community is diminished thereby. 
He cannot be so good a neighbor or citizen as he 
would otherwise be. If he is afflicted with a con- 
tagious disease, he may be a source of danger to the 
health of others. Poor health, by diminishing or 
destroying one's ability to work, means a financial 
loss both to the individual and to the community. 
In some cases it renders one dependent on other 
people for support, thereby making him, to some 
extent at least, a tax or burden to society. 

A sound body is therefore the greatest asset in life. 
The welfare of both the individual and of people in 
general depends, in a large measure, on the health 
of every person. But it is well known that to get 
the best results in the preservation of health we must 
begin with the health of children. The purpose of 
the rest of this section is to point out the ways in 
which school hygiene can and should contribute to 
the health of school children. 

Hygiene of the School Surroundings. One of the 
chief functions of school hygiene is to make the school- 
house and its surroundings thoroughly healthful. 
There are two main reasons why the whole school 
environment should be sanitary in every respect. 



46 Rural School Management 

Influence on Health. School surroundings have a 
very great influence on the present and future health 
of pupils. The years which a child usually spends in 
school are very important from the standpoint of 
health. School age is a period of rapid physical 
growth and development. It is extremely important, 
therefore, that the child be kept free from disease 
or any other condition which may tend to weaken 
the body during this period. Impure drinking water, 
improper methods of cleaning the schoolroom, and 
insanitary toilets are known to be common ways of 
spreading diseases. Poor ventilation and improper 
methods of heating, lighting, and seating in the school 
often cause physical defects or gradually weaken the 
body so that it becomes less able to resist disease in 
later life. From such dangers as these the child has a 
right to be protected. In nearly all of the states, at 
present, children are compelled by law to attend 
school several months each year for a period of several 
years. To compel a child to attend the school and 
at the same time allow conditions to exist there which 
may result in disease or physical defects is clearly 
unfair to the pupil. If the child must attend school, 
as we all believe he should, then he has a right to be 
protected from any dangers to his health. Further- 
more, since health is the most valuable asset in life, 
it is as much the duty of the school to promote the 
physical welfare of its pupils as it is to train their 
mental powers. To the end, then, that the present 
and future health of pupils may be properly safe- 
guarded, the school surroundings should be made 
and kept hygienic in every particular. 

Influence on School Work. Sanitary surroundings 
are necessary, in the second place, because of their 



School Hygiene 47 



influence on the mental powers of pupils. A child 
cannot apply himself closely to his studies if he is 
listless and drowsy from breathing bad air or from 
sitting too near a hot stove. He cannot study so well 
if he is suffering from a headache which is caused, in 
many instances, from improper light or lack of ventila- 
tion. Inattention, poor lessons, and even slow progress 
in school sometimes result from unhygienic surround- 
ings. Psychologists tell us that one's mental ability 
is affected very largely by his physical condition. We 
know that insanitary surroundings tend to produce 
an unfavorable condition of the body. Thus we see 
why pupils cannot do their very best mental work in 
an unhygienic schoolroom. 

Summary. The first function of school hygiene is to provide a 
sanitary school environment for the pupils. A healthful environ- 
ment is necessary for two reasons : (1) It protects and promotes 
the general health of pupils ; and (2) it makes more rapid school 
progress possible. 

Hygiene of the Pupils. Adequate protection for 
the health of school children involves more than 
providing a hygienic school environment. It requires, 
in the second place, an examination into the physical 
condition of the pupils themselves with a view to dis- 
covering and improving, as far as possible, any defects 
or ailments that may be found. 

Extent of Physical Deficiency. Physical examina- 
tions of school children have shown clearly that a 
great many pupils are not perfectly healthy and 
vigorous. Dr. T. D. Wood, of Columbia University, 
estimated (1912) that about three fourths of all the 
pupils enrolled in the schools of the country needed 
attention for defects that could be partly or com- 



48 Rural School Management 

pletely remedied. The facts which he gathered led 
him to conclude that fully half of the pupils in our 
schools have defective teeth; that about a fourth 
have defective vision ; that nearly one third have en- 
larged tonsils, adenoids, or enlarged glands; that 
about a fourth suffer from a lack of the right kind or a 
sufficient amount of food ; and that many, though in 
smaller numbers, have defective hearing, curvature 
of the spine, or heart disease. 

Need for Physical Inspection of Pupils. The above 
facts serve to reveal the pressing need for a thorough 
physical inspection of all school children. This need 
is urgent for two reasons. First. Physical defects, 
such as those mentioned above, tend to impair or 
undermine the general health of the pupils. De- 
fective teeth, for instance, may affect the health of 
the whole body by making a thorough mastication of 
the food impossible, or by serving as a lodging place 
for the germs which produce such diseases as tubercu- 
losis, scarlet fever, and diphtheria. Adenoids, also, 
by interfering with breathing and by serving as breed- 
ing places for disease germs, constitute a menace to 
the growth and health of the child. In a similar 
manner it can be shown that nearly all of the more 
common defects tend to impair the general health of 
the pupils afflicted with them. Second. The physical 
condition of the child, as we have already seen, has 
an important influence on his mental powers. There 
is no longer any doubt that pupils who have physical 
defects make slower progress in their school studies 
than do those who have sound, healthy bodies. 
One investigation has shown, for instance, that it 
takes pupils who have enlarged glands or adenoids 
more than a year longer to complete the eight grades 



School Hygiene 49 



than it does pupils who are free from such defects. 
In another instance it was found that far more pupils 
with good teeth made passing grades in certain schools 
than did those with poor teeth. Physical defectiveness 
is undoubtedly responsible for the poor school work of 
pupils in many instances. 

Summary. A second very important function of school hygiene 
is to provide adequate physical inspection of all pupils for the 
purpose of discovering those who need special care or treatment. 
Physical defects, when not detected and remedied, tend (1) to injure 
the general health of the pupil, and (2) to hinder his progress in 
the regular work of the school. 

Hygienic Home Conditions for Pupils. The third 
function of school hygiene is to help bring about more 
sanitary conditions in the homes of pupils. The con- 
ditions under which pupils live at home are important 
for the same reasons that sanitary school surroundings 
and the physical examination of pupils are important ; 
namely, their influence on the general health and on 
the school progress of children. 

Reaching the Homes through the Pupils. There are 
two ways in which school hygiene may help in bringing 
about sanitary conditions in the homes. First. If 
hygienic conditions are maintained in the school, 
pupils are both instructed and trained in methods of 
right living. For instance, pupils learn the importance 
of ventilation by living every day they are at school 
in a properly ventilated room. They learn that 
cleanliness is important by being required to keep 
themselves clean and by living in a schoolroom which 
is cleaned by proper methods. The hygienic school 
thus teaches by its example and makes its instruction 
effective by requiring pupils to practice the measures 



50 Rural School Management 

and methods learned. Pupils thus trained will, in 
many cases, understand the importance of sanitary- 
conditions in their homes and will seek to apply there 
the measures learned at school. 

The School Health Officer. Second. A more effective 
method of improving the home conditions is for the 
school to employ a physician or a nurse as a special 
health officer. In the discharge of his duties such 
an officer necessarily comes into close touch with 
parents. He visits the homes when necessary and 
makes recommendations with reference to the care of 
pupils. In this way he has an excellent opportunity 
to influence parents in the matter of sanitation in the 
homes. If the school has no special health inspector, 
then the teacher should be able to perform the most 
important duties of such an officer. 

Summary. School hygiene has three important functions : (1) 
to provide a sanitary school environment; (2) to discover and 
remedy, as far as possible, physical defects among pupils; and 
(3) to bring about more sanitary conditions in the homes of pupils. 
Each of these functions is important for two reasons : (1) It pro- 
motes the health and physical vigor of the pupils; and (2) it 
aids them in their school work. More sanitary conditions in the 
homes may be brought about, in some cases, through the influence 
of the pupils. The most effective way is to have a special school 
health inspector. 

II. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

Having learned what the school ought to do in the 
matter of preserving and promoting the health of its 
pupils, our next problem is to see what the situation 
is at present, and what difficulties the teacher may 
meet with in attempting to put into effect the measures 
necessary to accomplish the purposes named. 



School Hygiene 51 



Present Conditions. Better provision for the health 
of school children is now one of the leading movements 
in education. People are beginning to understand 
the importance of the matter, and better health meas- 
ures are being adopted in a great many places. 

In City Schools. City and town schools have made 
the most rapid progress in the movement. In a great 
many of these schools modern sanitary buildings have 
already been erected or are being erected as fast as 
new buildings are needed. Adjustable school seats, 
sanitary drinking fountains, sanitary methods of clean- 
ing, and medical inspection of pupils are now fairly 
common in city schools. On the whole, the situation 
is rapidly becoming satisfactory in most of these 
schools. 

In Rural Schools. In rural communities the school 
health movement has made less progress. However, 
a good beginning has been made, and interest in the 
movement is spreading. One evidence of this fact 
is seen in the number of laws which have been passed 
bearing on the subject. In some states the school 
inspectors or county health officers are permitted by 
law to condemn insanitary schoolhouses. Some states 
require that the plans for a new schoolhouse shall be 
inspected and approved by some competent official, 
such as the state superintendent of schools. Medical 
inspection of pupils is required by law in several 
states, and the use of school funds for that purpose 
is permitted in a number of others. The use of a 
common drinking cup in schools has been abolished, 
and regulations governing the methods of cleaning 
schoolhouses have been adopted by boards of health 
in many sections of the country. Furthermore, a 
great many county superintendents and rural teachers 



52 Rural School Management 

have caught the spirit of the movement and are con- 
ducting campaigns for the improvement of health 
conditions in their respective counties and districts. 
As a result some rural schools are now well equipped 
with sanitary buildings and other means for promoting 
the health of their pupils. 

Notwithstanding the excellent results that have 
been achieved in some communities, the fact remains 
that only a beginning has been made. Recent in- 
vestigations have shown clearly that a great majority 
of rural schools are still lacking in sanitation and 
adequate health supervision for their pupils. Dr. 
F. B. Dresslar, specialist in school hygiene and school 
sanitation in the United States Bureau of Education, 
made an investigation of rural school conditions in 
nineteen states. The replies which he received from 
more than twelve hundred schools revealed the follow- 
ing facts : 

Less than 40% of the schools had enough window area to fur- 
nish sufficient light. 

Less than 2 % were lighted from one side only. 

About 1 % had sanitary toilets. 

Only 25% used sanitary methods of cleaning. 

About 60% were heated by means of a common stove. 

Two thirds of the schools had no thermometer. 

About half were still using a common drinking cup. 

The rural schools of a typically progressive county 
in one of the central states were examined by a com- 
mittee of educational experts and the following condi- 
tions found : 

77 of the 110 schools were heated by means of an unjacketed 
stove. 

102 had insufficient lighting surface. 
105 had windows on opposite sides. 



School Hygiene 53 



72 had no cloakroom. 

All toilets were earth privies. 

No school had provision for the physical examination of pupils. 

No school served hot lunches. 

These facts and many others which might be cited 
indicate clearly that, as a rule, the health of country 
children is not yet adequately protected by the schools 
they attend. The reasons why rural communities 
have made less progress in school hygiene than city 
schools are no doubt the same as those which have 
tended to retard school progress along other lines. 
The fact that leading educators are now turning their 
attention to the improvement of rural schools; that 
country people, through improved means of communi- 
cation, are brought into closer touch with each other 
and with what is going on in other places; and that 
rural teachers are coming to be better trained for leader- 
ship in such matters, account for the present awakening 
and may be expected to bring about a more rapid prog- 
ress in the future. 

Old Type of Schoolhouse. One of the most serious 
difficulties met with in trying to adopt hygienic meas- 
ures in rural schools is the prevalence of the old- 
fashioned type of schoolhouse. In general this is a 
box-shaped structure with a door in one end, a chimney 
in the other, a row of windows on each side, and no 
provision for toilet or wash rooms. While such build- 
ings are old-fashioned, it is worthy of note that not 
all of the buildings themselves are old. Many of the 
newer rural schoolhouses are merely copies of the 
older type. The practical difficulty in such cases 
arises in trying to make the building already in use 
sanitary. It is not an easy matter, for instance, to 
get sufficient light from one side only in a schoolhouse 



54 Rural School Management 

in which the windows are on opposite sides, or to get 
sanitary cloakrooms, toilets, and wash rooms in a 
building in which no provision has been made for such 
things. 

Other Traditions. Another obstacle to school 
hygiene is found in the old ideas about schools and 
health matters which prevail in some communities. 
One of these ideas or traditions is the notion that the 
physical condition of the pupils is none of the teacher's 
business. Many patrons, and even some teachers, 
have not yet learned that promoting the physical 
welfare of children is as much a part of their education 
as is the training of their minds. Keeping order and 
" hearing '' the recitations constitute, according to this 
view, the sole functions of the teacher, and any attempt 
on his part to enforce hygienic measures is looked upon 
as meddling with affairs which do not concern the 
school. 

Old ideas or beliefs about health matters in general 
are still found in some communities. Some people 
think, for instance, that certain contagious diseases 
such as whooping cough and measles are necessary 
evils to which one must submit sooner or later. A 
great many people do not yet know the importance 
of fresh air or pure drinking water or personal clean- 
liness. In some sections it is not widely known that 
such diseases as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and colds 
can be prevented if proper precautions are taken. 
The influence on health of good eyes, sound teeth, 
care of nose and throat, and wholesome food and 
exercise is not as widely known as it should be. 

Such traditions and such lack of knowledge, where 
they exist to any great extent, constitute a real obstacle 
to effective sanitation and health work in the schools. 



School Hygiene 55 



Lack of Funds. We have already seen that lack of 
funds is responsible, in some instances, for low teachers' 
salaries and inadequate school equipment. It is also 
an obstacle to effective school hygiene in some com- 
munities. To make the school thoroughly sanitary 
necessarily involves some expense. To get proper 
lighting conditions and sanitary toilet facilities in 
the school, the building may have to be altered some- 
what. Sanitary drinking fountains, adjustable window 
shades, heating and ventilating systems, hygienic seats, 
and the physical inspection of pupils are some of the 
essentials in school hygiene. While there is much, as 
we shall see, which a good teacher may do to improve 
the conditions found in many schools, the very best 
conditions cannot be provided without incurring some 
expense. 

Summary. The movement for better health provision for 
school children is a leading tendency in education at present. 
Fairly satisfactory conditions have been attained in most city 
schools and in some rural schools. In most rural schools adequate 
health measures have not yet been adopted. The chief hindrances 
to school hygiene are : (1) the insanitary type of schoolhouse found 
in a great many districts; (2) traditional ideas about physical 
education and health matters in general ; and (3) lack of the funds 
necessary to provide sanitary schoolhouses and equipment, and 
employ a special health officer. 



REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Ayres : The Relation of Physical Defects to School Progress. 

Dresslar: School Hygiene, Chapter I. 

Dresslar: The Hygiene of Rural Schools. (In Proceedings of 

National Education Association, 1912.) 
Wood: Health Problems in Education. (In Proceedings of 

National Education Association, 1912.) 



56 Rural School Management 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. Do the people of your community regard health as very 
important? Give arguments to support your answer. 

2. How do the "present conditions" in your school compare 
with those described in the text? How do you account for the 
facts revealed ? 

3. Give from your own observation instances of the traditional 
beliefs of parents in matters pertaining to health. 

4. Summarize the main points in the chapter under the follow- 
ing headings : 

a. The functions of school hygiene. 
h. The difficulties encountered. 

5. To what extent are these functions being performed or 
these difficulties met in your school? Give specific instances 
to illustrate or prove your answer. 



CHAPTER IV 

SCHOOL HYGIENE (Continued) — HOW TO MAKE 
THE SCHOOL A HEALTH AGENCY 

Having noted the importance of health and the 
relation of school hygiene to it, we are now ready to 
consider the question of what measures should be 
employed in every school to make it a health-promoting 
agency and what the teacher can do to bring about 
the necessary conditions where they do not already 
exist. 

We shall consider the problem under four main 
headings: (1) making the school premises hygienic; 
(2) a general health campaign; (3) the medical in- 
spection of school children; and (4) the serving of 
hot lunches in schools. 

I. HYGIENE OF THE SCHOOL PREMISES 

Lighting the Schoolroom. Since our eyes are one 
of our most valuable possessions, they should be care- 
fully protected from injury. It is known now that 
the old-fashioned method of lighting the schoolroom 
has tended to produce defects in the vision of school 
children. We ought, therefore, to know how the 
school should be lighted in order to prevent this in- 
jury to the eyes of the pupils. 

The facts pertaining to the lighting of the school- 
room fall into three groups ; namely : (1) the correct 
position of the windows ; (2) the amount of glass area 
needed ; and (3) the methods of regulating the light. 

57 




58 



School Hygiene 59 



Position of the Windows. It is now the practice 
in our best schools to place all of the windows in the 
side of the room to the left of pupils as they sit at 
their desks. The windows are arranged in a row, be- 
ginning about one and a half feet from the rear wall, 
and are placed as close together as possible. The 
bottoms are from three and a half to four feet from 
the floor and the tops extend to within a few inches 
of the ceiling. In some schools small windows are 
placed in the rear end of the room. These are in- 
tended chiefly for ventilation, but may be used to 
increase the amount of light, especially on dark days. 
Where rear windows are used they are so situated that 
the tops are on a level with the tops of the other win- 
dows and the sills at least eight feet from the floor. 
This arrangement makes them less injurious to the 
teacher's eyes and prevents their interfering with the 
use of the rear wall for blackboard purposes. In all 
strictly modern school buildings there are no windows 
either to the right or in front of pupils. 

Amount of Glass Area. Another feature of the 
lighting in our best schools is the amount of light 
provided for. It has been found that in order to get 
enough light, the area of the glass in the windows, 
that is, the sum of the areas of all of the window panes, 
must be from one fifth to one fourth of the area of 
the floor. If there are any large trees or other ob- 
structions to the light, the glass area should be somewhat 
larger. In buildings constructed on this basis pupils 
can see to read ordinary print in the darkest part of 
the room, even on cloudy days. 

Regulating the Amount of Light. While it is very 
important to have enough light in the room, it is 
also extremely important that pupils shall be pro- 



60 



Rural School Management 



tected from too bright a light. If there is enough 
window area in the room to furnish sufficient light 
on dark days, it follows that there will probably be 

too much light 
on bright, clear 
days. Hence 
window shades 
are necessary in 
order to adjust 
the light in the 
room to outside 
conditions. 

Two methods 
of regulating the 
amount of light 
have been found 
satisfactory and 
are in use now 
in many of the 
best schools. 
One method is to 
fasten two roller 
shades near 
the middle of 
each window so 
that one may be 
rolled down, the 
other up. This 
arrangement 
makes it possi- 
ble to shade any 
portion of the window as needed without shading all of 
it. It makes possible also the use of either the top or the 
bottom of the window for ventilation purposes. Since 




(Courtesy of Suproma Stiadins W orks) 

Double Roller Shade. 



School Hygiene 



61 



the upper half of the window is the better for lighting 
purposes, the top shade is not used except when needed 
to shut out direct sunlight. At other times when the 
light in the room is too strong, it is regulated by draw- 
ing the lower shade only. 

The other method of 
varying the light condi- 
tions in the room is to use 
shades which are adjust- 
able, that is, shades 
which may be moved up 
or down on the window 
as needed. One type of 
adjustable shade is 
shown in the ■ accom- 
panying illustration. It 
consists of a special roller 
device which is sus- 
pended from the top of 
the window by means of 
a cord and small pulley. 
In a great many schools 
the ordinary type of roll- 
er shade is made adjust- 
able by means of shade 
adjusters, information concerning which can be obtained 
from the county or state superintendent of schools. 

The practice of fastening shades at the top of the 
windows is no longer followed in the best schools. 
In some instances they are fastened at the bottom 
and roll upward, but this plan is not so satisfactory as 
either the double shade or the adjustable shade method. 
The most widely approved colors for window shades 
are light tan, light gray, or light green. 




(Courtesy of Luther O. Draper 

Shade Company) 

Adjustable Roller Shade. 



62 Rural School Management 

Summary. The schoolroom should be properly lighted in 
order to protect the eyes of pupils from injury. Sanitary light- 
ing requires: (1) that the windows shall be placed to the left, 
or left and rear of pupils ; (2) that the amount of glass area shall 
equal at least one fifth of the floor area ; (3) that the windows 
shall be equipped with shades which may be so manipulated or 
adjusted as to shade any portion of the window without shading 
all of it. 

What the Teacher Can Do. We have now learned 
what conditions are necessary for the proper lighting 
of the schoolroom. Our next problem is to see what 
the teacher can do to bring about these conditions in 
schools where they do not already exist. 

If a new schoolhouse is about to be erected in the 
district, the teacher should write to his state superin- 
tendent and to the United States Bureau of Education 
for bulletins or other literature giving plans for and 
descriptions of modern rural school buildings. With 
this information at hand, he can aid the school board 
very greatly in planning a structure which will em- 
body correct lighting features. A point which will 
have great weight with the board is the fact that in 
erecting the building it will cost very little or no more 
to place the windows on one side than it will to dis- 
tribute the same number on opposite sides. If there 
is a s^ate law which requires that plans for school 
buildin^ shall be approved by the state superintendent 
or some other official, this fact will aid the teacher 
in getting a modern building constructed. But whether 
there is such a law or not, the teacher must be prepared 
to assist the board in every way possible. 

To provide sanitary lighting conditions in school- 
houses of the older type is, in most cases, difficult, 
since it necessitates a remodeling of the building. 
There are a few things, however, which any teacher 



School Hygiene 63 



can do with a view to bringing about some improve- 
ment. He can (1) fasten opaque shades or some 
other sort of cover over the windows which are directly 
in front of the pupils ; (2) compute, or let the pupils 
compute, the ratio of the window surface to the floor 
area; (3) make measurements to determine how 
many additional windows could be inserted in the 
side to the left of pupils, and estimate the cost in- 
volved. It is a good plan to let pupils assist in work- 
ing out such problems, since by so doing they learn 
how the room ought to be Hghted and may be able 
to influence their parents to favor the necessary changes. 
In the matter of window shades, an alert teacher 
can certainly do something to improve the lighting 
conditions which prevail in a great many schools. 
One teacher describes the plan slie adopted as follows : 

"We had no shades of any kind in our school. I saw an adjust- 
able shade on display in the county superintendent's office and 
described it as best I could to my pupils. We decided we wanted 
that kind for our school and planned a box social entertainment 
to raise the funds. When the shades came we put them up our- 
selves during the recess and noon intermissions." 

Another teacher whose school was equipped with 
roller shades fastened at the tops of the windows 
saw a shade adjuster demonstrated at a tp'"'2hers' 
institute. He wrote to the manufacturers for i sample 
device to show his school board. The sample was 
placed on one of the windows and the school board 
invited to meet at the schoolhouse. The result was 
that the board purchased enough of the adjusters to 
equip all of the windows where the direct sunlight 
was troublesome. Each one of the other shades was 
fastened at a point near the middle of the window 
instead of at the top. 



64 Rural School Management 

Heating the Schoolroom. The heating of the 
schoolroom is another important phase of school 
sanitation. To make the heating thoroughly sani- 
tary two conditions must be maintained : (1) The 
temperature must not be too high or too low ; (2) the 
heat must be evenly distributed throughout the room. 

The Proper Temperature. In our best modern 
schools very great care is taken to avoid too high or 
too low a temperature in the schoolroom in winter. 
Experts have found that for most sections of the 
country a temperature of from 66 degrees to 68 degrees 
is best for all purposes. If the temperature is kept 
much higher than 68 degrees, pupils become drowsy 
and inactive and their mental powers are so dulled 
that they cannot do their school work effectively. 
But the most serious result is the effect of an excessively 
high temperature on the health of pupils. Over-heated 
air usually becomes too dry to be breathed with safety. 
It tends to absorb the moisture from the membranes of 
the air passages and thus to produce diseased conditions 
of the nose, throat, and lungs. Furthermore, the sudden 
change from the high temperature in the room to a much 
lower temperature out of doors is dangerous. 

Pupils cannot apply themselves closely to their studies 
if the room is uncomfortably cold. Again, the chill in- 
cident to sitting for a long time in a cold room may prove 
injurious to health. Unless pupils are required to dress 
more warmly than they usually do for school, the 
temperature of the room should not be allowed to 
remain below 66 degrees. 

Distribution of the Heat. Sanitary heating requires, 
in the second place, that the heat shall be evenly 
distributed throughout the room. If this is not done, 
some portions of the room are likely to be too hot 



School Hygiene 65 



while other portions are too cold. Both of these 
extremes, as we have seen, should be avoided. To 
bring about an even temperature the method of heat- 
ing the room must be one which causes currents of 
warm air to go to all parts of the room. The methods 
in use in the best rural schools are the hot-air furnace 
and the jacketed stove system. But since these are 
ventilating as well as heating systems, they are more 
fully explained in connection with ventilation. 

Thermometers and Hygrometers. From what has 
just been said we can readily see that every schoolroom 
should be supplied with thermometers. The practice 
in the best schools now is to have two thermometers 
for each room, one at some point near the source of 
heat and the other in an opposite part of the room. 
Care is taken not to place them too far above the 
floor. If the school does not have a basement furnace, 
they are usually placed from one to three feet from the 
floor. Hygrometers are instruments for indicating 
the amount of moisture in the air. Since very dry 
air in the schoolroom is known to be injurious to the 
health of pupils, care is taken to see that the humidity 
(moisture) does not fall below 50 per cent. To this 
end a vessel containing water should be kept on the 
stove, if an ordinary stove is used for heating. All 
modern jacketed stove systems have humidifying 
vessels attached to the stove or furnace. 

Summary. The heating of the schoolroom has a very important 
influence on the physical and mental condition of the pupils. 
Sanitary heating requires (1) that the temperature of the room 
shall be maintained at from 66 degrees to 68 degrees, and (2) that 
the heat shall be evenly distributed throughout the room. Every 
schoolroom should be supplied with thermometers and a hygrom- 
eter to enable the teacher to know both the temperature and the 
humidity of the air at any time. 




fZ^ CT^ 




(Courtesy State Department of Education, Columbia, S. C.) 

Jacketed Heater for Schoolroom. 

A, the complete equipment which is placed in a corner of the 
room. B, a specially constructed joint furnishing connections 
for the smoke and foul air pipes. C, the special joint needed when 
the pipe enters the chimney through the ceiling. X, the fresh-air 
intake — a hole in the floor under the stove. (To guard against 
impure air, there should be a pipe under the floor extending from 
this hole to the outside of the house.) The drum or jacket is 
about 18 inches larger in diameter than the stove. 

66 



School Hygiene 67 



What the Teacher Can Do. The un jacketed stove 
is a positive menace to the health of school children. 
The best remedy for this condition is to induce the 
school board, if possible, to install a hot-air furnace 
or one of the patented jacketed stove systems. In 
preparation for presenting this matter to the board 
the teacher should procure descriptions, illustrations, 
and information as to the cost of such systems. The 
names of reliable manufacturers can be obtained by 
writing to the nearest state normal school, and the 
companies will be glad to furnish the information and 
literature needed. From this literature the teacher 
can easily understand the workings and advantages 
of a modern heating plant and can present the facts 
to his school board. In addition to the argument 
based on the health and comfort of pupils, the matter 
may be presented in some districts as a business in- 
vestment. In some states it is the custom to allow 
a certain amount of state aid to rural schools which 
have met a satisfactory standard of excellence. One 
of the requirements in almost every instance is that 
the school shall have a sanitary heating system. It 
can easily be shown that the funds received as state 
aid will, in the long run, more than offset the cost of 
making the needed improvements. 

But in case a modern system cannot be procured, 
the next best remedy is to make the method in 
use as sanitary as possible. The accompanying fig- 
ure shows how a South Carolina teacher converted 
an ordinary stove into a fairly satisfactory jacketed 
system. 

Ventilation. It is an established fact that fresh 
air is one of the greatest factors in the preservation 
of health. People who have made a careful study of 



68 Rural School Management 

the matter tell us that the breathing of bad air tends 
to create a condition in the body which renders one 
susceptible to various diseases, especially to such 
diseases as tuberculosis, pneumonia, diphtheria, colds, 
and catarrh. An abundance of fresh air in the school- 
room is absolutely essential to the physical vigor of 
school children. Consequently adequate provision for 
ventilation is one of the most necessary phases of 
school sanitation. 

Purposes of Ventilation. The supreme importance 
of fresh air is well established. Just how it produces 
such beneficial effects on health is not, at present, 
so well understood. For a long time it was thought 
that the only purpose of ventilation was to supply 
the air in the room with an abundance of oxygen and 
remove the carbon dioxide and other objectionable 
substances from the room. But it is now beheved 
that ventilation is necessary for other reasons as well. 
Recent experiments have shown that the air, to be 
most healthful, must be kept in motion, that its tem- 
perature must not be too high, and that it must con- 
tain a certain amount of moisture. In the fight of 
our present knowledge, then, we may say that the 
purposes of ventilation are (1) to supply the air with 
oxygen and to remove impurities; (2) to produce a 
movement of the air in the room; (3) to keep the 
temperature reasonably low; and (4) to supply a 
sufficient amount of moisture. 

Methods of Ventilating Schoolrooms. The most 
common methods of ventilating, except in some of the 
larger city schools where the mechanical or fan system 
is used, are (1) the window method and (2) the gravity 
method. 

The window method, as its name implies, consists in 



School Hygiene 69 



admitting air through open windows. In warm 
weather the windows are opened both at the top and 
the bottom as far as possible. In cold weather the 
plan is modified so as to prevent drafts of cold air 
from striking directly on the pupils. This may be 
done in either one of two ways : (1) By opening the 
window at the top only. This makes two air passages 
at each window, one at the top and another at the 
middle between the sash, both of which are above 
the heads of the pupils. (2) By the use of window 
boards. These are boards about six inches wide, 
hinged vertically at the middle and cut just the 
right length to fit snugly into the window when the 
lower sash is raised. The raising of the lower sash 
makes an opening at the middle of the window. In 
some instances wider boards are used, and instead of 
being placed under the sash they are slanted inward 
so as to deflect the air upward over the heads of the 
pupils. 

It is the custom now in our best schools to flush 
the room thoroughly with fresh air at recesses and at 
least once between intermissions. When the flushing 
is done during the school session, the children are 
given marching or calisthenic exercises while the 
windows and doors are open. 

A gravity method of ventilation is one in which the 
movement of air into and out of the room is produced 
by means of the heating plant. The most common 
types are the hot-air furnace and the modern jacketed 
stove system. 

The hot-air furnace is placed in the basement. 
Air from the outside is conducted through a large 
duct to an enclosure around the fire box. In this 
enclosure is a vessel containing water to supply the 



70 Rural School Management 

air with moisture. When the air is heated it passes 
up through other ducts and enters the room at a point 
about eight feet from the floor. The foul air is con- 







» 



(Courtesy of the Smith System Heating Company) 

A Modern Heating and Ventilating System. 

ducted out of the room by means of a flue or pipe 
connected with the chimney. 

A modern jacketed stove system makes use of the 
same general principle as the furnace, but is simpler 



School Hygiene 71 



in construction. It consists of a heating device or 
stove surrounded by a metal screen or jacket extend- 
ing from the floor to a height of five and a half or six 
feet. Air is admitted from the outside through a duct 
near the floor, is heated in the enclosure between the 
jacket and stove, passes out over the top of the jacket, 
and goes to all parts of the room. The foul air outlet 
is either an opening into the chimney near the floor 
or a specially constructed pipe extending from a few 
inches above the floor to the smoke pipe. All of the 
best jacketed stove systems are equipped with water 
containers for humidifying the air. 

Summary. Ventilation is one of the most important phases 
of school sanitation. It has four functions : (1) to supply oxygen 
and remove impurities; (2) to produce a movement of the air in 
the room ; (3) to keep the temperature from becoming too high ; 
and (4) to supply the indoor air with moisture. The methods of 
ventilating in most common use among rural schools are (1) the 
window method, and (2) the gravity method, which includes hot- 
air furnaces and jacketed stoves. 

What the Teacher Can Do. Owing to the close 
connection between heating and ventilation, what 
was said about the improvement of heating conditions 
in the school applies with equal force here. For the 
sake of emphasis let us restate the main points. 
(1) Get the school board to install a modern method, 
if possible. If this cannot be done, then (2) con- 
struct a homemade system by putting a screen or 
jacket around the stove and providing for a cold air 
inlet and a foul air outlet. (See page 66.) 

The following additional points should be em- 
phasized in connection with ventilation. 

(1) Flush the room thoroughly with fresh air at 
regular intervals. 




72 



School Hygiene 73 



(2) If the school is not equipped with a modern 
system, then make as wide a use as possible of the 
windows for ventilation purposes. 

(3) Let the pupils make the window boards previ- 
ously referred to. It furnishes an excellent opportunity 
to give pupils valuable training in manual training, 
hygiene, and social service. 

School Toilets. The condition which exists in the 
toilets in a great many schools is a source of danger 
to both the health and the morals of pupils. The 
waste materials from the human body frequently 
contain dangerous disease germs, notably those of 
typhoid fever and hookworm disease. If the toilet 
floors and seats are not kept clean, if flies or other 
insects have access to the cesspools, or if the excreta 
are scattered about in any way, the health of the whole 
school is thereby endangered. 

The influence of the toilets on the morals of school 
children, while not strictly a matter of health, is none 
the less serious. The filthy condition and the in- 
decent drawings and writing found in so many school 
toilets make for habits of uncleanliness, and, in some 
cases, lead to immoral practices on the part of school 
children. To provide healthful and morally whole- 
some toilet facilities is an important measure in school 
sanitation. 

Indoor Toilets. For several reasons indoor toilets 
are far more satisfactory than outdoor privies. Being 
more directly under the supervision of the teacher, they 
are much more likely to be kept clean and free from 
any indecent writing and drawings. There is less 
opportunity for any immoral conduct on the part of 
pupils. The sewage is properly disposed of, and so 
there is less danger from disease germs. They are 



74 



Rural School Management 



more comfortable in cold or disagreeable weather. 
And, incidentally, they impart ideas of cleanliness 
and comfort in connection with toilet facilities, ideas 
which the children may be the means of putting into 
effect in their own homes. 




Types of Modern Toilets. 

Indoor toilets have long been in use in schools where 
there is a city water and sewer system to furnish the 
means of flushing the toilets and carrying away the 
sewage. But it has been found that such a system 
is not absolutely essential, and indoor toilets are now 
coming into use even in rural schools. 

One method is to have a pressure tank to supply 



School Hygiene 75 



the water and a septic tank to receive the sewage. 
This method is too compHcated to describe in detail 
here, but any teacher can get a complete description 
of it either from his state superintendent or from the 
United States Bureau of Education. 

The least expensive and the most easily installed 
indoor toilet for rural schools is the patented chemical 
toilet. This device consists of a box- or cylindrical- 
shaped seat with a close-fitting, hinged lid over the 
opening and a water-tight metal receptacle within. 
This receptacle is partly filled with a mixture of water 
and certain chemicals which liquefies the excreta and 
kills all disease germs they may contain. It may be 
removed as often as is necessary for emptying and 
cleaning. All odors are removed by means of a small 
pipe extending from the toilet out through the roof 
or into the chimney. 

Where indoor toilets are used in schools, they are 
usually placed in the cloakrooms. In order to give 
the necessary privacy, the cloakrooms must be located 
on opposite sides of the building or separated from 
each other by means of a sound-proof wall. 

Outdoor Toilets. In a great majority of rural 
schools the outdoor privy is the type still in use. In 
some instances these have been made fairly sanitary, 
though they are perhaps never as safe as the indoor 
type. In schools where the outhouses are most nearly 
satisfactory some such plan as the following is used. 
Two toilets are provided, one for each sex. They 
are located well in the rear of the schoolhouse, on 
opposite sides of the playground, and are well screened 
by means of a board fence in front and on one side. 
The toilet is a tightly constructed building, well 
lighted, and ventilated by means of a flue extending 



76 



Rural School Management 



out through the roof. The interior walls are painted, 
and while the paint is fresh they are coated with a 
layer of sand to prevent their being defaced with 
knives or pencils. A bin containing lime or dry 



xed Window 




(.From United States Bureau of Educa- 
tion, Bulletin 1914, No. 12) 

Dry Toilet with Buckets. 

earth stands in one corner. The openings in the 
seat are provided with close-fitting hinged covers. 
The receptacle for the excreta is either a large bucket- 
shaped vessel, a stout metal-lined box, or a cement- 
lined vault or pit in the ground. Care is taken to 
make the receptacle water-tight and to protect it 



School Hygiene 77 



completely from flies or any other germ-spreading 
agency. The toilet is so constructed that the receptacle 
may be emptied and cleaned when necessary. The 
accompanying illustration reveals the essential features 
of a good outdoor toilet. 

Summary A badly kept toilet is a source of danger to the 
health and morals of school children. Indoor toilets are now 
practicable for rural as well as for city schools. They are more 
sanitary, more comfortable, more easily kept clean, and afford 
less opportunity for bad conduct on the part of pupils, than out- 
door toilets. Either the septic tank type or the chemical type is 
suitable for use in rural schools. Fairly satisfactory outdoor 
toilets are possible if they are properly located, constructed, and 
cared for. 

What the Teacher Can Do. Unless the school is 
already provided with well-constructed and well-kept 
outhouses, the teacher's efforts should be directed 
toward procuring indoor toilet facilities. If the school- 
room has separate cloakrooms for boys and girls, the 
chemical type of toilet may be installed with very 
little trouble and without a great deal of expense. 
In such cases the first step for the teacher is to prepare 
himself to make a convincing plea to his school board 
for the necessary funds. To this end he will need 
illustrations, descriptions, and information as to cost 
and methods of operating chemical toilets. A good 
plan is to get from the state superintendent of schools 
the names of the manufacturers of such devices and 
write to these for illustrative material, prices, and all 
other information needed. Thus armed the teacher 
can readily point out the need for such toilet facilities 
for the sake of the health, morals, and comfort of 
pupils, and their advantage to the school as one of 
the steps necessary to procure state aid. 



78 Rural School Management 

Where there are no cloakrooms, the installing of 
indoor toilets would probably necessitate some re- 
modeling of the school building. This is a measure 
which the teacher can recommend, but may not be 
able to carry into immediate effect. 

In case the efforts for the indoor toilets fail, the 
outhouses must receive more attention than they 
are at present receiving in a great many schools. As 
the supervisor or general manager of the school, the 
teacher is temporarily in charge of the whole school 
plant — the grounds, the building, and the out- 
houses. In some schools the teacher serves as janitor, 
in others some one else is employed for this service. 
In either case it is the teacher's duty to see that the 
toilets are in good condition on the first day of the 
term. He should see that all filth has been removed 
from the floor and seats ; that all drawings and writing 
have been erased or covered with paint; and that a 
supply of lime or dry soil for spreading over the excreta 
is on hand and properly used. All of this is a part of 
the janitor's work, and the teacher must see that it is 
not neglected. 

Drinking Water. Another important phase of school 
sanitation pertains to the drinking water and the 
drinking utensils used in the school. The dangers 
to health from this source are three in number. (1) The 
water used for drinking purposes may be impure. It 
may contain disease germs, portions of decayed animal 
or vegetable matter, or other substances which are 
injurious to the health of both teacher and pupils. 
Epidemics of typhoid fever frequently start from the 
use of drinking water which contains the germs of this 
disease. (2) The quantity of water available may 
not be sufficient to meet the requirements of good 






School Hygiene 79 



health. Physicians tell us that people as a rule do 
not drink enough water. In schools where there is 
not an abundant supply of water on the school premises 
or very near at hand, pupils may not get as much 
water as they need. (3) The utensils used for drink- 
ing may be the means of transmitting diseases from 
one pupil to others. It is known that many of the 
most injurious disease germs gain entrance to the 
body through the mouth. It is, therefore, dangerous 
for pupils to drink from the same cup or from any 
cup which is not known to be perfectly clean. 

Plenty of Pure Water. To safeguard the health of 
pupils and teacher from the dangers just mentioned, 
the first step is to see that the school is supplied with 
plenty of pure water. This is accomplished in the 
best schools by having a well of pure water on the 
school premises. To be sure that the water from the 
well is pure, two precautions are necessary. First, 
the well is made deep enough to tap water which 
has not been polluted by near-by cesspools or barn- 
yards. Further, the wall is made water-tight by 
means of glazed sewer tiles, and the covering around 
the pump is so close-fitting that neither water nor 
vermin can enter from the top. 

If water is to be kept in the schoolroom, still another 
precaution is necessary. It must be kept in a dust- 
proof vessel of some sort. For this purpose most of 
the better class of schools are now using metal tanks 
or large earthen jars equipped with close-fitting covers 
and faucets or bubblers. 

In addition to the precautions just mentioned, it 
is a good plan to have the water examined by an expert 
from time to time to ascertain its fitness for drinking 
purposes. This service is usually performed free by 



80 Rural School Management 

some one connected with the state university, the 
agricultural college, or the state board of health. All 
that is needed is to send a small sample of the water to 
the proper official, and he reports as to whether or not 
it contains any injurious substances. 

Methods of Drinking. The common drinking cup 
has been found to be one of the worst enemies to 
health. In one of the larger cities an empty cup 
used in one of the schools was discovered, upon ex- 
amination by an expert, to contain more than a million 
disease germs. Among them were the germs which 
produce scarlet fever, diphtheria, tuberculosis, and 
blood poisoning. The discovery of such facts as this 
has led a great many states to pass laws prohibiting 
the use of a common drinking cup in the schools. 
No first-class school any longer permits this method 
of drinking. 

A method used in quite a number of schools at 
present is to have each pupil furnish his own drinking 
utensil. These individual cups are a decided improve- 
ment over the common cup ; but this practice, too, is, 
in many instances, insanitary. One of the difficulties 
is that the cups are not always kept clean. Again, 
where the method of taking care of the cups is not 
supervised by the teacher, pupils frequently lose 
them, leave them at home, or get them interchanged 
or dip them into the water bucket. However, most, 
if not all, of these difficulties are overcome in some 
schools by having a definite place to keep the cups 
and a systematic method of taking care of them. In 
quite a number of schools, too, pupils are taught as a 
part of the handwork of the school to make paper 
cups for their own use. 

The sanitary drinking fountain is now believed to 



School Hygiene 



81 



offer the best solu- 
tion of the problem 
so far discovered. 
These fountains 
are now adapted 
for use in rural as 
well as in city 
schools. The es- 
sential feature is 
the bubbling de- 
vice, which may be 
attached to any 
water tank in place 
of the ordinary fau- 
cet. The county or the state superintendent will 
furnish any teacher, upon request, the names of man- 
ufacturers or supply houses from which information 
concerning these bubblers may be obtained. Several 
different varieties are now on the market, some 




A Sanitary Bubbling Fountain. 




A Sanitary Wasteless Fountain. 



82 Rural School Management 

of which are shown in the accompanying illustra- 
tions. 

Summary. The drinking water and the drinking utensils 
used in the school may endanger the health of pupils in three 
ways : (1) The water may be impure ; (2) there may not be a suffi- 
cient quantity to supply the needs of pupils ; and (3) the method 
of drinking may be the means of transmitting diseases. Adequate 
provision for this phase of school sanitation requires (1) that 
there shall be an abundant supply of pure water easily accessible, 
preferably on the school premises, and (2) the use of a dust-proof 
water tank equipped with a sanitary bubbler. 

What the Teacher Can Do. We have now seen what 
measures are necessary to safeguard the health of 
school children in the matter of drinking water. What 
the teacher can, or in any given school should, do 
depends on the conditions which exist there. Quite 
a number of rural schools are already supplied with 
plenty of wholesome water and sanitary methods of 
drinking, but perhaps a considerably greater number 
are still lacking in one or both of these features. In 
the latter case the steps to be taken fall into two 
groups: (1) steps to determine and maintain the 
purity of the water; and (2) steps to prevent the 
spread of disease through the methods of drinking. 

Whatever the source of water supply, the water 
should be tested for impurities. If the teacher does 
not know the name of the official to whom the sample 
should be sent for examination, an inquiry addressed 
to the county or state superintendent will bring the 
information. This test should be made, if possible, 
before the opening of the school term. But if that 
is impracticable, then it should be done immediately 
after school begins. If the water is found to contain 
impurities, it should not be used until the well or 



School Hygiene 83 



cistern has been thoroughly cleaned and a water-tight 
cover constructed to protect it from surface water, 
rabbits, mice, etc. The school board should be notified 
promptly in all cases where the water has been found 
to be unsafe for drinking purposes. 

With reference to the method of drinking, get a 
sanitary fountain, if possible. Interest the pupils in 
some sort of entertainment to raise the necessary 
funds. If this fails and an ordinary water pail must 
be used, keep it well covered and require pupils to 
use a long-handled dipper in conveying the water 
from the pail to the individual drinking cups. Do 
not permit the use of a common drinking cup. Let 
the pupils make a cupboard or case for the individual 
cups where each may be kept in its place and all pro- 
tected from the dust. 

Seating in the School. Provision for the proper 
seating of pupils is a phase of sanitation which has 
been neglected in a great many schools. The features 
which contribute to make the seating both uncomfort- 
able and unhealthful are : (1) The seat may be too 
high or too low; (2) the desks may be too high, too 
low, too flat, or either too near or too far from the 
seat; (3) the seating may be insanitary from the 
standpoint of cleanliness. 

These defects are known to be injurious to the 
health of children. If the seat is too high, for instance, 
the pupil's feet cannot rest on the floor. If it is too 
low, or if the desk is too near the seat, the pupil must 
sit in a cramped position. If the desk is too high, 
it tends to produce curvature of the spine ; if too low 
or too far from the seat, round shoulders, a flat chest, 
or defective vision may be the result. As at present 
constructed and fastened to the floor, most school 



84 Rural School Management 

seats are excellent dust collectors, and dust is one 
of the most common methods of spreading disease 
germs. How to overcome these defects and prevent 
the harmful effects that sometimes result therefrom 
is an important problem in school sanitation. 

Arrangement of the Seats. At least a partial 
remedy for some of the defects mentioned is found in 
the proper arrangement of the seats in the room. 
School seats of the ordinary type are made in five or 
six sizes. The practice in a great many schools is to 
place all of the smallest seats in the front of the room, 
the next larger size just behind these, and so on, with 
the largest seats all in the rear. This plan places 
the desk of a smaller size in front of a seat of a larger 
size — an arrangement which is sure to bring either 
the seat or the desk out of adjustment to the pupil 
who uses it. A much better plan is to place all of 
the seats of the same size in a row extending from the 
front to the rear of the room. A great many pupils 
may then be seated so that both the seat and the 
desk are well suited to the size of the pupil. 

Adjustable Seats. In some of the more progressive 
schools the most serious defects in school seating are 
remedied by means of adjustable seats. These are 
seats which are equipped with a device for raising 
and lowering the seat and desk parts or at least the 
desk part. Seats of this kind are of two main types : 
(1) those in which both the seat and the desk parts are 
adjustable ; and (2) those in which only the desk 
part is adjustable. To make those of the first type 
both comfortable and healthful for pupils, three 
things must be observed. (1) The seat must be 
just high enough to let the pupil's feet rest comfort- 
ably on the floor when his knees are bent at right 



School Hygiene 



85 



angles. In general the correct height for the seat is 
two sevenths of the height of the pupil. But it is 
better not to depend entirely on this rule. The pupil 




Adjustable Chair and Desk. 

who is to occupy the seat should try it ; and if it is 
found to be too high or too low, it can then be changed 
to meet the needs of this particular pupil. (2) The 
height of the desk must be such that the pupil will 
not have to raise the shoulder in order to write when 



86 Rural School Management 

the body is erect. For primary pupils the height of 
the inner edge of the desk should be three sevenths of 
the height of the body plus half an inch, and for pupils 




MouLTHROP Movable Chair Desk. 

of intermediate grades three sevenths of the height 
of the body plus one inch. (3) The edge of the seat 
should extend slightly, not more than an inch, under 



School Hygiene 87 



the edge of the desk in front. When seats of this 
type are used, they should be adjusted three or four 
times a year, and pupils should be permitted to assist 
in making the adjustments. 

The movable chair is another type of adjustable 
desk. It consists of a chair with a writing table or 
desk attached. In the chair is a sliding box which 
serves as a receptacle for books and other supplies 
when not in use. The desk is adjustable in three 
ways : (1) It may be raised or lowered ; (2) it can 
be moved toward or from the pupil ; and (3) the 
slant may be varied so as to hold the paper when 
used for writing. In addition to its sanitary features 
this type of seat has an especial advantage in schools 
which are used for social gatherings. Since the seats 
are not fastened to the floor, the room may be easily 
cleared when an open floor space is wanted. Or 
camp chairs may be used instead of the school seats 
when a larger number of seats is needed. 

Summary. School seating is fraught with more danger to the 
physical welfare of children than was formerly thought to be the 
case. These dangers may be overcome in part by placing the 
seats of the same size in the same row from front to rear of 
the room. But a more effective method used is a good type of ad- 
justable seating. 

What the Teacher Can Do. In those schools in 
which new seats are about to be purchased, the teacher 
should try to induce the school board to buy either 
movable chairs or adjustable seats and desks. Some 
such method as that described in connection with the 
procuring of a modern heating and ventilating system 
may be followed. 

If the school is already furnished with adjustable 
desks, it is extremely important that each desk be 



88 Rural School Management 

kept adjusted to the size of the pupil who occupies 
it. Superintendents report that teachers sometimes 
fail to make use of the adjustable features of the 
seats. In such cases the chief value of the seats is 
lost, and pupils are subject to the same dangers that 
arise in connection with the ordinary type of seats. 

Where the school is furnished with the ordinary 
folding seats, two measures are necessary to get the 
best results : (1) The seats must be arranged accord- 
ing to size as previously described; (2) each pupil 
should be seated at the desk which comes nearest to 
being the correct height for him. In selecting a seat 
for a pupil the following rule may be used : The height 
of the desk should be about one inch more than three 
sevenths of the height of the pupil. In thus seating 
pupils according to size they will also be seated, in 
most cases, according to grades. However, if there 
are any large pupils in the lower grades, they should 
be permitted to sit with the larger pupils and to change, 
when necessary, for recitation purposes. 

By adopting these measures, the teacher can make 
the seating fairly comfortable and hygienic for a 
majority of the pupils. It is a good plan to let the 
larger pupils assist in arranging the seats and making 
the measurements. It is interesting, and, besides, 
teaches them an important lesson in hygiene. 

Cleanliness. Cleanliness in the school is necessary 
for at least three important reasons. Chief among 
these is its influence on health. Mention has already 
been made of dust as a means of spreading diseases. 
When dust gets into the air, or settles on pupils' desks, 
books, or pencils, or gets on their hands or food, the 
children are exposed to any disease germs which it 
may contain. Wherever disease germs are likely to 



School Hygiene 89 



be found, perfect cleanliness is essential. It is neces- 
sary, in the second place, to make the schoolroom 
more attractive. A clean schoolroom has a greater 
drawing power, is more stimulating and uplifting in 
its influence on pupils, than is a dirty one. Again, 
by practicing cleanliness in the school pupils form 
habits and get ideas about cleanliness which they 
can put into effect in their homes. 

Methods of Cleaning. Since a considerable portion 
of the dirt and filth which get into the schoolroom is 
brought in on shoes, every school should be supplied 
with foot scrapers and doormats. Pupils should be 
required to use these until it becomes a habit with them 
to do so. 

After the floor has been thoroughly cleaned it should 
be oiled, care being taken to remove by rubbing with 
cloths all of the oil which is not absorbed. If this 
is done occasionally, the floor can be swept more easily 
and scrubbing will be required much less frequently. 

In sweeping, a bristle brush should be used instead of 
a broom. A sweeping compound, consisting chiefly of 
oiled or damp sawdust and some sort of disinfectant, 
should be sprinkled over the floor before sweeping. 
This material serves to prevent the dust from spread- 
ing and to kill any disease germs it may contain. 
Both the bristle brush and the sweeping compound can 
be bought from any school supply house. Usually 
they can be procured from local dealers in any town 
or village. 

The desks and all other furniture should be cleaned 
with an oiled or damp cloth — never with a feather 
duster or dry cloth. A cloth moistened with kerosene 
should be used in cleaning the windows and window 
and door casings. 



90 Rural School Management 



Window and Door Screens. Flies are known to be 
one of the filthiest and most dangerous forms of un- 
cleanliness. They breed in such places as barnyards 
and cesspools, frequent the filthiest places that are 
open to them, and, in many instances, gather up and 
spread disease germs wherever they go. Most of 
our homes are carefully screened against this pest. 
Children have a right to the same protection while 
at school. For this reason it is important that every 
schoolhouse be provided with screens for the doors and 
windows. 

Washbasins. Facihties for washing hands and 
face are another important phase of cleanliness in 
the school. Pupils should be required to wash their 
hands before eating, after using the toilet, and at any 
other time when it becomes necessary. Washbasins, 
paper towels, and liquid soap are now a part of the 
regular equipment in our best schools. The best 
place for keeping these facilities is in the cloak- 
rooms. 

Summary. Cleanliness in the school is necessary (1) to pro- 
tect the health of pupils and teacher; (2) to make the school 
attractive; and (3) to train pupils in habits of cleanliness. 
Cleanliness is promoted through the use of (1) foot scrapers and 
doormats; (2) oiled floors; (3) an oiled or damp cloth in cleaning 
furniture and windows ; and (4) a bristle brush and sweeping com- 
pound in sweeping. The school should be screened against flies 
and provided with washbasin, paper or individual towels, and 
liquid soap. 

What the Teacher Can Do. The first step for the 
teacher to take is to see that the school is supplied 
with the small amount of material needed to promote 
cleanliness. Every school should be provided with 
foot scrapers, doormat, window and door screens. 



School Hygiene 91 



bristle brush sweeper, sweeping compound, a little 
kerosene, washbasins, paper towels, and soap. This 
material is as much a part of the necessary school 
supplies as are chalk, erasers, and maps, and should 
be furnished by the school board. In case the board 
should refuse, then the matter should be taken up 
with the pupils and a collection taken, an entertain- 
ment planned, or a pupils' club or committee formed, 
to raise the necessary funds. 

The second step is to see that sanitary methods of 
sweeping and dusting are used in the school. The 
teacher has general supervision over the janitor's 
work. He can, therefore, see that all cleaning in 
the school is done according to the methods previously 
described. 

A third step is to see that the pupils do their part 
in keeping the school and themselves clean. The 
teacher can see that the pupils do not carry mud 
into the schoolroom on their shoes ; that they do not 
scatter paper and pencil sharpenings over the floor; 
and that they wash their hands at any time there is 
need for it. If the teacher patiently and persistently 
requires these things, they will soon become regular 
habits with the children, and that is one of the ends 
sought. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Carney: Country Life and the Country School, pages 206-223. 
Dresslar: School Hygiene, Chapters IV, V, VIII, IX, X, XI, 

XIII, XIV, and XV. 
FoGHT : The American Rural School, Chapter VII. 
Rapeer: Educational Hygiene, Chapters VIII, XIX, XX. 
Salisbury : School Management, Chapters II, III, IV. 
Shaw: School Hygiene, Chapters I, IV, V, VII. 



92 Rural School Management 



CLASS EXERCISES 

1. Compute the ratio of the actual glass area to the floor 
area in the schoolroom you are now using. 

2. Describe in detail the methods of heating, ventilating, and 
humidifying in use in your schoolroom. Point out the defects 
revealed, if any, and state how they may be remedied. 

3. Using some pupil in the school as a subject, demonstrate 
the method of adjusting the seat to the child, if adjustable seats 
are used. If you have ordinary desks, show how to select the seat 
best suited to the size of the pupil. 

4. Prepare and give to the class such an argument as you 
would make to your school board in favor of installing indoor 
toilets in the school. 

5. State clearly just how you would get the water used for 
drinking in your school examined for impurities, also just what 
you would do in case it was found to be unsafe for drinking pur- 



6. Note carefully all of the provisions made for cleanliness 
in your school. Point out the defects, if any, and show how the 
conditions could be improved. 

7. Make a list of all of the equipment needed to make the 
school environment sanitary. What items in the list can be made 
by the teacher and pupils without expense to the district? How 
would you get the funds necessary to purchase the rest of the 
material ? 

8. A sanitary survey of a school plant is made by observing 
all of the facts that bear on the health of pupils and teacher and 
arranging these in systematic or logical order. Make such a sur- 
vey of your school. 



CHAPTER V 
SCHOOL HYGIENE (Concluded) 

I. THE GENERAL HEALTH CAMPAIGN 

Purpose. In sanitation, as in any other important 
phase of school work, the teacher needs the coopera- 
tion of his school board and patrons. Without this 
no teacher can put into effect all of the measures 
necessary to make the school thoroughly sanitary. 
But in order to secure their assistance people must 
be informed as to the importance of the measures 
to be adopted. The purpose of the school health 
campaign, therefore, is to spread information about 
matters of health and arouse an active interest among 
patrons. 

Among the means which may be used in such a 
campaign are: (1) parent-teacher associations; 
(2) Clean-up Day; (3) Public Health Day; (4) pupil 
organizations; and (5) distribution of health litera- 
ture. 

Parent-Teacher Association. If the school has a 
parent-teacher association, one of its regular com- 
mittees should be a committee on health. This 
committee should be composed of those patrons who 
are most familiar with, and most deeply interested 
in, matters of health. Its duties should include such 
matters as investigating the sanitary needs of the 
school, making reports and recommendations to the 
association and to the school board, conducting a 

93 



94 Rural School Management 

Clean-up Day in the school and arranging for 
special speakers for Public Health Day. 

Clean-up Day. If the school has no parent-teacher 
association, then the teacher will have to take the 
lead in the health campaign. A very good way to 
begin is to have a general Clean-up Day very early 
in the school term. The usual method is to invite 
all of the patrons to meet at the school on a certain 
day for the purpose of cleaning up the building and 
premises. Some teachers prefer to have the meeting 
in the afternoon only, while others make it an all- 
day affair and have a basket lunch served on the 
school grounds. The main purpose of such a meet- 
ing is to improve the school premises, and anything 
which will add to their appearance or healthfulness 
should be attended to. Such an occasion is also a 
splendid time for the teacher to call attention to any 
equipment needed, such as window shades, a drinking 
fountain, washbasins, doormats, window screens, etc. 
When patrons have had an active part in cleaning 
up the school, they are very likely to be willing to 
furnish the supplies necessary to keep it clean and 
healthful. 

Public Health Day. It is becoming the custom now 
in a great many schools to observe one day during the 
term as Public Health Day. For this occasion a 
special program is prepared and all of the patrons are 
invited to be present. In one school the exercises 
consisted of the following items so arranged as to 
make a varied program : 

1. Music by the school. 

2. Recitations and readings by the pupils on topics pertaining 
to health. 

3. Essays by pupils on such topics as "The Value of Fresh 



School Hygiene 95 



Air in Home and School," "How to Prevent Typhoid Fever," 
"The House Fly Pest," etc. 

4. Short talks by patrons, previously arranged for. 

5. A health exhibit consisting of charts containing health 
statistics, pictures contrasting sanitary and insanitary school 
and sleeping rooms, illustrations and advertisements of sanitary 
appliances for home and school. 

The essays and the health exhibit had been pre- 
pared as a part of the regular school work in hygiene. 
In this school, Health Day was regarded by all as 
one of the most valuable events of the entire school 
year. 

In quite a number of states, the state superin- 
tendent designates the day to be observed as Health 
Day and prepares a suggestive program for the oc- 
casion. County and state superintendents every- 
where will be glad to furnish material and suggestions 
for Health Day exercises if asked to do so by the 
teachers. 

Pupils' Organizations. An organization or club 
composed of the larger pupils is another excellent 
means of promoting sanitation in the school. Such 
an organization should have a president, secretary, 
and treasurer elected from among the pupils, with 
the teacher acting as counselor. An appropriate 
name should be selected, such as Pupils' Board of 
Health, Junior Civic League, or School Health Militia. 
The larger pupils will thoroughly enjoy belonging to 
such an organization and will cheerfully assist the 
teacher in every way possible. The organization 
may be of great service in various ways, but especially 
in (1) maintaining cleanliness in the schoolroom, in 
the toilets, and on the playgrounds ; (2) raising funds 
with which to purchase material needed for school 



96 Rural School Management 

sanitation; (3) planning and conducting Clean-up 
and Health Day events in the school; (4) spreading 
ideas about health and sanitation among the patrons 
of the school, and in putting these ideas into practice 
in the homes. 

Distribution of Health Literature. In nearly all of 
the states and in a great many counties, the boards 
of health issue bulletins or other publications dealing 
with important health matters. These are for free 
distribution, and the school is one of the very best 
agencies for placing this literature in the homes of 
the people. To this end every rural teacher should 
keep in close touch with the various boards of health 
and public sanitoriums in his state and county and 
should ask for their bulletins in sufficient quantities 
to supply every family in his district with a copy. 
These can be distributed on Pubhc Health Day, 
Parents' Day, or on any other public occasion in the 
school, or they can be sent to parents by the children. 
In this way the schools may be the means of bringing 
to the attention of people in general the expert knowl- 
edge and advice they most need, especially with 
reference to the prevention of diseases. This in- 
formation is furnished freely and gladly by our public 
health officials, and the school can and should play 
an important part in the campaign to educate the 
public in important matters of health. 

n. MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

Our discussion of how to make the school a health 
agency has thus far dealt with two aspects of the 
problem; namely, making the pupil's surroundings 
sanitary, and conducting a health campaign in the 



School Hygiene 97 



community. We shall next consider those factors 
which relate more particularly to the condition of 
the pupils themselves. 

Functions of Medical Inspection. Medical inspec- 
tion, as the term is ordinarily used, means a careful 
physical examination of pupils by a physician, a 
trained nurse, or some other competent person. The 
most important functions or purposes of such in- 
spection are as follows. 

To Prevent the Spread of Contagious Diseases. 
When a child who has diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, 
whooping cough, or some other contagious disease goes 
to school, other pupils are exposed, and an epidemic 
of that disease may be the result. But if the school 
has adequate medical inspection, the disease may be 
discovered and the pupil afflicted may be removed 
from the school in time to prevent the spread of the 
malady. An eminent physician, in speaking of this 
matter, says: *' It can be shown that in places where 
a thorough system of medical inspection has been 
established, the number of cases of diphtheria has 
fallen off two thirds, and scarlet fever five sixths." 

To Discover and Correct Physical Defects. A 
second main function of medical inspection is to 
discover and correct the physical defects of school 
children. The extent of this defectiveness and its 
influence on both the health and school progress of 
pupils have been discussed and need not be repeated 
here. 

To Aid in School Sanitation. In the third place, 
medical inspection aids the teacher in providing and 
maintaining sanitary conditions in the school. While 
the special health officer is employed primarily to 
examine the pupils, it is also his duty to supervise 



98 Rural School Management 

the sanitation of the school. He, therefore, looks 
into the methods of lighting, heating, ventilating, 
and cleaning employed in the schools he visits and 
recommends any improvements that may be needed. 
Being a special officer employed for health work in 
the schools, he has greater authority and influence, 
and may, therefore, succeed in bringing about im- 
provements which the teacher alone could not secure. 

To Improve Health Conditions in the Homes. We 
have seen that the duties of the school health in- 
spector frequently take him into the homes of pupils 
to consult with parents. These visits have great 
possibilities for good. The inspector becomes familiar 
with the conditions in the homes, advises parents 
as to the proper care or treatment of children, and 
recommends the sanitary measures necessary to make 
the home healthful. The whole family may thus profit 
from the inspector's visit. It may be the means of 
saving the lives of children, of preventing sickness in the 
family, of saving doctors' bills, and of contributing to 
the comfort and happiness of home life in general. 

Methods of Conducting Medical Inspection. There 
is, as yet, no standard or uniform method of conduct- 
ing medical inspection in the schools. A few of the 
states have passed laws requiring the medical inspec- 
tion of pupils, and, in some instances, the laws pre- 
scribe the method that shall be used. But in most 
of the states at present the whole matter is left with 
the local school authorities, who must work out or 
adopt their own method of procedure. 

In City Schools. The methods most widely used 
at present in city schools are of two kinds: (1) in- 
spection by physicians and nurses, and (2) inspection 
by nurses alone. 



School Hygiene 99 



In the first of these methods the steps are usually 
as follows: (1) A careful examination of every pupil 
is made at the beginning of the term by a physician 
employed by the school board. A complete record 
of the facts found is kept on a card prepared for the 
purpose and filed for future use. (2) The parents 
of pupils found to have defects are notified and urged 
to procure proper medical treatment for the child. 
(3) An examination of any pupil is made by the school 
physician at any time during the term when it seems 
necessary or advisable. (4) A nurse is employed to 
assist the physician, to look after the sanitary con- 
ditions in the school, and to visit the homes of pupils 
to confer with parents. 

The second method differs from the first only in 
that all of the work is done by trained nurses em- 
ployed by the school board for all of their time. This 
method is less expensive than the first and has been 
found to be highly satisfactory. 

In Rural Schools. Where medical inspection is 
employed in rural schools, the health officer is usually 
the county physician or a county school nurse. 

In most sections of the country provision is already 
made for a county physician. One method of provid- 
ing for medical inspection is for the county authorities 
to employ this physician on a salary to devote his 
entire time to the examination of school children 
and the supervision of health matters in the schools 
of the county. In some counties a special school 
nurse is employed instead of the county physician. 
The nurse spends her entire time in visiting schools, 
examining pupils, assisting teachers, and consulting 
with parents on matters pertaining to the health of 
the children. 



100 Rural School Management 

A few states have established the office of state 
health inspector or director of hygiene. The prin- 
cipal duties of such an officer are to visit as many 
schools as possible, inspect school buildings, attend 
teachers' meetings to instruct teachers in methods 
of conducting the health work in their schools, collect 
and send out valuable information, and assist in 
health campaigns throughout the state. 

Summary. Medical inspection in the schools has four main 
functions : (1) To prevent the spread of contagious diseases ; (2) 
to detect and correct, as far as possible, physical defects among 
pupils; (3) to aid in making the school surroundings sanitary; 
and (4) to bring about better health conditions in the homes of 
pupils. In the cities medical inspection is conducted by physicians 
aided by nurses, or by nurses alone. In rural schools, the usual 
plan is either to extend the duties of the county physicians to 
include health work in the schools, or to employ a special nurse 
for this work. 

What the Teacher Can Do. At the present time 
only a very small number of rural schools have made 
any provision for the medical inspection of pupils. 
It is extremely important, therefore, that the teacher 
shall be able to make at least a partial survey of the 
health of school children. Country children are in 
greater need of this service than are the children who 
live in the cities. Statistics show that the percentage 
of defectiveness is greater among rural pupils. Doctors 
and dentists are not as accessible to country people, 
consequently they seek medical advice only in the 
more serious cases. Rural schoolhouses, as a rule, 
are less sanitary than city schoolhouses. The rural 
teacher should therefore be able to adopt some meas- 
ures for detecting and correcting defects in the physical 
condition of country boys and girls. Among the con- 



School Hygiene 



101 



ditions which any teacher can easily detect are (1) de- 
fective vision ; (2) defective hearing ; (3) disorders of 
the nose and throat ; (4) defective teeth. 

Tests of Vision. The only material needed for 
testing the eyes of pupils is either a Snellen vision 




McCallie Vision Test Card. 



chart or a set of the McCallie vision test cards, either 
one of which may be procured from any school supply 
house at small expense. 

For primary pupils the McCallie test cards are 
preferable, because the test is in the nature of a game 
and can therefore be made very interesting. They 
are also preferable in all cases where the tests are to 



102 Rural School Management 

be made in the presence of other pupils, since the test 
material cannot be memorized by seeing others use 
it. Complete instructions for giving the tests are 
printed on the backs of the cards. 

If the Snellen chart is used, the following instruc- 
tions should be carried out: 

Hang the chart in a good light (but not direct sunlight) at a 
distance of 20 feet from the pupil being tested, and, if possible, in a 
position so that other pupils cannot see the letters. Examine 
each eye separately by requiring the pupil to cover the opposite 
eye with a card. Have the pupil read the letters aloud, beginning 
at the top and reading down as far as possible. Record the results 
of the test for each eye by using a fraction whose numerator is the 
distance from the chart (20) and whose denominator is the number 
over the last line read. For instance, if the last line which the 
pupil can read is marked 30 feet, then the vision for that eye is 
ffi ; if he can read the 20-feet line, the vision is |§, or normal. If 
the vision of either eye is less than |§, the pupil's parents should 
be notified and urged to have the child examined by a physician 
or eye specialist. 

Testing the Hearing. What is known as the 
'' whisper " test is an easy and fairly satisfactory 
method of detecting defective hearing among school 
children. One method of conducting it is as follows : 

The pupil to be tested is placed at one end of the room with the 
ear turned toward the opposite end and the other stopped with a 
ball of clean cotton. The teacher stands in the opposite end of the 
room and speaks in a whisper a series of twenty words or numbers. 
The pupil repeats aloud the words whispered by the teacher and 
the number of words repeated correctly is recorded. The other 
ear is then tested in the same manner, a different series of words 
being used. The number of words repeated correctly by a majority 
of the pupils is taken as the standard for normal hearing. Thus 
if a majority of the pupils repeat fifteen out of the twenty words, 
then fifteen represents hearing which is not defective. If a pupil 
can repeat only ten of the words correctly, his hearing is recorded 



School Hygiene 103 

as jf ; if another repeats only eight words, his hearing is put down 
as j%, and so on. In giving this test the teacher must be careful 
to speak the words in as nearly a uniform voice as possible. If 
the hearing of any pupil is noticeably below the standard, his 
parents should be notified that his ears need to be examined. 

Nose and Throat Disorders. Enlarged tonsils and 
adenoids are the most common disorders of the nose 
and throat. In their effects on the physical and 
mental condition of pupils they are among the most 
serious defects found in school children. The teacher 
who has had no special training for health work must 
rely on certain external signs or symptoms to detect 
their presence. But these signs are easily recognized by 
any teacher. They are usually some of the following : 

Breathing through the mouth Earache, defective hearing 

Nasal voice Sore throat 

Prominent upper teeth Blank expression 

Catarrh of the nose or throat Inattention 

Frequent colds Mental dullness 

Any pupils in whom these symptoms are noticeable 
should be urged to see a doctor for treatment. 

Defective Teeth. Defective teeth have been found 
to be one of the most widespread and one of the most 
serious defects with which school children are afflicted. 
Very few rural teachers will be able to conduct a 
dental clinic or careful examination of the teeth of 
pupils. But any teacher can easily learn whether 
or not pupils have the toothache, or whether their 
teeth are discolored, crooked, unduly prominent, or 
broken. Where any of these conditions are found, 
it is evidence that the pupils should see a dentist, and 
this should be reported to the parents. 

Contagious Diseases. The teacher can hardly be 
expected to recognize any of the more common con- 



104 Rural School Management 

tagious diseases in their early stages, since this is 
often difficult for experienced physicians to do. There 
are a few symptoms, however, which are sufficient 
grounds for suspicion. Among these are feverishness, 
vomiting, headache, backache, sneezing, running nose, 
cough, inflamed or watery eyes, and spots on the skin 
or in the mouth. Where a combination of these 
symptoms appears, it is better both for the pupil and 
for the school to have him taken home for treatment. 
To assist the teacher in detecting the presence of 
fever, the school should be provided with a clinical 
(fever) thermometer. This instrument can be pur- 
chased at any drug store. It should be thoroughly 
cleansed after using, preferably with alcohol. 

Notifying Parents. In every case where pupils are 
thought to have any physical defects that need special 
attention,, it is very important that their parents 
be informed of the fact. The usual method of doing 
this is for the teacher to send the parents a note 
stating his opinion in the matter and suggesting that 
they take the child to a doctor for advice and treat- 
ment. Such a note will, in many instances, accomplish 
the end desired. Experience has shown, however, 
that parents do not always act upon this advice. 
In serious cases the teacher should visit the home and 
confer with the parents in person. A personal visit 
from the teacher in the interest of their children's 
health will have great weight with most parents and 
is very likely to result in their taking the steps neces- 
sary to correct the conditions found by the teacher. 

Summary. The present lack of expert medical inspection in 
rural schools makes it necessary that the teacher be able to 
do some work along this line. The teacher can easily (1) test the 
vision and hearing of pupils ; (2) detect disorders of the nose and 



School Hygiene 105 



throat ; (3) tell when the teeth need attention ; and (4) recognize 
some of the more marked symptoms of illness. When defects 
are found he can notify parents, following the written notice by 
a personal visit when necessary to induce parents to procure 
proper medical attention for their children. 



m. HOT LUNCHES IN SCHOOLS 

Functions. The serving of warm lunches to school 
children is now recognized as a very important phase 
of school hygiene. Like a great many other school 
practices the hot lunch came into use first in city 
schools. Its value was so completely demonstrated 
there that the movement has spread into country 
districts, where there is perhaps even a greater need 
for such a measure. The pressure of work incident 
to doing the morning chores, the haste necessary to 
get to school on time, the long trip, and the impossi- 
bility of returning to their homes for the noon meal 
make the hot school lunch an especially important 
matter for country children. 

Hygienic Function. The foremost function of the 
warm lunch for school children is to promote the 
physical and mental condition of pupils. From the 
standpoint of the health and vigor of the growing 
child, plenty of wholesome food is a necessity. It 
has been found that the warm lunch supplies this 
necessity in a greater degree than does the usual cold 
lunch. In the first place, the one or two warm dishes 
served tend to make the whole meal more attractive 
and appetizing than it would otherwise be. Again, 
the serving of the warm lunch probably leads to the 
exercising of greater care in the preparation and 
handling of the box lunches brought by the children. 
In the third place, where the whole school unites in 



106 Rural School Management 

the noon meal the food is eaten more slowly and, 
consequently, is more thoroughly masticated and 
prepared for digestion. It is claimed that the hasty 
eating of the cold school lunch, followed immediately, 
as is usually the case, by vigorous exercise on the 
playground, gradually affects the digestive organs so 
that stomach trouble is likely to appear later in life. 

On the mental side, actual experience has shown 
that warm lunches enable pupils to do more and 
better school work than they could otherwise do. 
The reason for this is easily understood. Plenty 
of wholesome food is necessary to supply the energy 
required for both physical and mental work. When 
pupils do not have a hearty, refreshing noon meal, they 
use up their store of energy and become fatigued — a 
condition which makes the best mental work impossible. 
Hence a well-prepared, appetizing lunch enables pupils 
to make more rapid progress in their school studies. 

Practical Domestic Science. In addition to the 
hygienic function just described, the serving of a 
hot school lunch furnishes an excellent opportunity 
for practical training in domestic science. In the 
first place, it supplies a natural setting, a real need 
for the work, and, therefore, gives rise to a stronger 
motive, a deeper interest on the part of pupils. When 
pupils help prepare food for a real meal, they very 
naturally want to do their work right and hence be- 
come eager to learn how it ought to be done. The 
interest thus aroused has been observed to spread to 
the homes, where pupils become more willing and 
capable helpers in such matters — a fact for which 
busy mothers are duly grateful. 

In the second place, the lunch period furnishes a 
splendid opportunity to the teacher to explain such 



School Hygiene 107 

matters as the different classes or kinds of food, the 
part each plays in nourishing the body, the best methods 
of making the food inviting and palatable, the physi- 
ology of digestion, and the importance of cleanliness 
in eating. If such instruction is given in connection 
with the preparation and serving of the school lunch, 
it is more interesting and more easily understood by 
pupils than if given in the usual manner. 

Social Training. The third function of the hot 
school lunch is to serve as a means of giving children 
a certain amount of social training. Since the pupils 
all eat together, the most important matters of table 
etiquette may well be taught and put into practice 
at the lunch period. Again, in preparing the warm 
dishes, in arranging the tables or desks for the lunch, 
and in cleaning and putting away the equipment, 
pupils learn the value of cooperation and mutual 
helpfulness. 

Summary. The serving of a hot noon lunch is an important 
phase of school hygiene in rural as well as in city schools. Its 
chief function is to promote the physical and mental vigor of 
pupils. Incidentally it serves as a means of giving practical train- 
ing in domestic science, and in such social matters as table manners, 
cooperation, and mutual helpfulness. 

Equipment. A teacher who has had a great deal 
of experience in connection with hot lunches in rural 
schools recommends the following list of articles as 
comprising the necessary equipment : 

1 8-qt. kettle with cover 1 steel fork 

1 4-qt. double boiler 1 Dover egg beater 

1 8-qt. saucepan 1 grater 

3 large granite spoons 1 dish pan 

2 asbestos mats 1 draining pan and basket 

1 graded measuring cup 1 two-burner kerosene stove 



108 Rural School Management 

1 tablespoon 4 dish towels 

1 steel knife 2 dish cloths 

1 teaspoon 1000 paper napkins 

In addition to the foregoing each pupil provides 
himself with a spoon, a knife, a fork, a plate, and a 
cup. Several teachers have found it possible to get 
along with much less general equipment. One teacher 
reports that her equipment consisted of a stove, kettle, 
teakettle, dish pan, trays, and towels. In another 
instance the school heater, a six-quart kettle, a strainer, 
and ladle constituted the general equipment. 

The method of procuring this equipment varies 
with different schools. In some districts the school 
board furnishes the equipment. In others the funds 
are raised by means pf a box social or school enter- 
tainment of some sort. In quite a number of in- 
stances the teacher and pupils furnish the equipment, 
each bringing some one or two articles that can be 
spared from the home. The following statements 
from teachers themselves serve to illustrate some of 
the methods used : 

"Stove is borrowed. The rest was furnished by the teacher. 
Pupils furnish their own cups and spoons." 

"The pupils furnished what they needed and the teacher got 
the kettle, spoon, and dish pan." 

"The oil stove was paid for with a part of the money made 
by giving a box social and entertainment shortly 9.fter Christmas." 

Procuring the necessary equipment is clearly not 
a difficult matter. Teachers find in almost every 
case that if they can get just enough articles to start 
the movement, ample equipment will soon be provided. 
Parents, as a rule, become deeply interested when 
once they see the value of the hot lunch demonstrated. 

The method of caring for or storing the equipment 



School Hygiene 109 

is another important phase of the hot lunch move- 
ment. In one school the larger pupils constructed 
a small cupboard in one corner of the schoolroom. 
In another a '' kitchenette was fixed up in a part of 
the hall and the boys transformed a grocery box into 
a cupboard." Where the school attempts to do any 
manual training work, the making of a cupboard or 
receptacle for the school dishes constitutes an ex- 
cellent exercise for the class in that subject. The 
pupils will thoroughly enjoy working on something 
that serves a real need in the school. 

Food Materials. The warm lunch, as it is usually 
served in rural schools, consists of one or two warm 
dishes together with the lunches which the children 
bring from their homes. Among the warm dishes 
which it has been found practicable to serve are : 

Soup — Various kinds, such as corn, potato, pea, bean, and 
tomato. 

Cereals — Rice, barley, cream of wheat, oat meal, corn meal. 

Eggs — Boiled, scrambled. 

Stews — Meat, vegetable, meat and vegetable. 

Vegetables — Potatoes, carrots, beans. 

Beverages — Cocoa, postum. 

The materials for the hot dishes are procured in 
different ways in different schools. Some teachers 
have found it an advantage to furnish the supplies 
themselves for the first few meals in order to awaken 
an interest among pupils and patrons before calling 
on them for materials. One teacher began by fur- 
nishing meat broth, and crackers to serve with it. 
After two meals the children suggested that they 
would like to bring something and have a hot dish 
every day. In another district a school entertain- 
ment with a " domestic science shower " was held 



110 Rural School Management 

and resulted in the parents' contributing several 
cooking utensils and a quantity of sugar, salt, baking 
powder, cereals, and vegetables. In some districts 
the school board furnishes the funds and the teacher 
purchases the materials needed from time to time. 
The method which is probably most widely used is 
to let the pupils furnish the supplies by turns. For 
instance, one pupil is asked to furnish the milk and 
another the tomatoes for one day. Other pupils 
are asked to bring the things needed for the next 
day, and so on, until each has furnished his share. 
Teachers who have used this plan report that fre- 
quently more material is contributed than is really 
needed. In some communities the school garden 
is planned with a view to supplying the vegetables 
needed for the school lunch. This has been found to 
increase the interest in the regular school garden work. 
How to Conduct the Lunch. Methods of preparing 
and serving the lunch vary with different communities. 
One teacher gives the following description of the 
method she uses: 

"We prepare the vegetables for dinner at recess and it takes 
only a moment to set them over the fire later. If I am busy when 
the cooking needs attention, one of the girls attends to it and does 
so as quietly and as naturally as she would lay aside her book or 
sewing in her own home under the direction of her own mother. 

"We use our desks for tables. Each child lays his table and 
furnishes his own bowl, plate, paper napkins, cup, knife, fork, 
and spoon. After lunch each one clears his own table and takes 
his dishes to the desk that is used for a cook table. 

"We did our cooking the first year on a No. 18 Round Oak 
Heater, but last year I purchased a small oil stove that adds greatly 
to our comfort, especially on warm days. I have furnished the 
cooking utensils but the mothers have offered to furnish us any- 
thing we needed." ^ 

1 Rural Educator, 1915. 



School Hygiene 111 

Another teacher who has had a great deal of ex- 
perience with warm lunches in rural schools recom- 
mends the following method : 

"Appoint two boys or girls as housekeepers and two more as 
waiters. The duty of housekeepers will be to prepare the material, 
attend to the cooking and serving of the dish, and after the meal 
to wash dishes and put things in order. The duty of the waiters 
will be to get out the dishes and pass them when the food is served ; 
after the meal to collect the dishes and pile them neatly on the 
table for washing, dry the dishes when washed and return them to 
their places. Groups of workers may be changed each day or may 
serve longer. Appointments should be so made that every child 
will be called upon in his turn, and thereby made to feel that he 
is an important factor in the scheme. The plan of work should be 
made out a week ahead and written on the board, also a list of the 
dishes to be prepared in the order in which they are to be used. If 
this plan is followed, each child will know when he is to be on duty 
and what he is to do. 

"If possible, some credit might be given for this work. Points 
to be considered : Neatness, order, dispatch, quietness. But 
care should be taken not to allow this work in any way to super- 
sede the regular school work. 

"Material should be prepared at recess or before school in the 
morning. If the dish requires long cooking, it may be prepared and 
put to cook before school in the morning ; or if less time is required, 
at recess ; or if still a shorter period of cooking is needed, at some 
appointed time during the forenoon. In any case, everything 
should be in readiness, and the housekeeper attend to the matter 
at the time set." ^ 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Bagley: Classroom Management, Chapter VI. 

Dresslar : School Hygiene, Chapters XV, XVI, XVII, XXIII. 

Foght: The American Rural School, Chapter XIV. 

Rapeer : Educational Hygiene, Chapters VII, VIII, IX, XI, XII, 

XIII. 
Salisbury: School Management, Chapter V. 

^ Rural School Agriculture, October, 1914, 



112 Rural School Management 

state Normal School, Cheney, Washington, Bulletin R, No. 3 : 

Hot Lunches in Country Schools. 
United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1913, No. 44 : 

Organized Health Work in Schools. 
University of Idaho, Agricultural Extension Department: Rural 

School Lunches. 
University of Minnesota, Department of Agriculture, Extension 

Division : Warm Lunches for Rural Schools. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. Procure the addresses of the following health agencies and 
show clearly just how you would use each in a general health cam- 
paign in your community: (1) your county physician or health 
officer; (2) the secretary of your state board of health; (3) the 
physician in charge of your state public health laboratory; (4) 
the superintendent of the tuberculosis or other public sanitorium. 

2. Make out a good program for the observance of Health 
Day in your school. 

3. Using a pupil or a member of your class as a subject, illus- 
trate the methods of testing the vision and hearing of school 
children. 

4. It is customary now in 'the best schools to record and keep 
on a card all of the facts revealed by the medical inspection of a 
pupil. Make out a model form of card to be used for this purpose. 

5. Assuming that your examination of a pupil revealed the 
presence of some physical defect, write a note such as you would 
send to the parents of the pupil. 

6. Write out a brief statement of how you would get (1) the 
serving of hot lunches started in your school ; (2) the equipment 
and material necessary to continue the practice. 



CHAPTER VI 

BEAUTIFYING THE SCHOOL PREMISES 

I. FUNCTIONS OF A BEAUTIFUL SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT 

In Chapters IV and V we learned how the school 
premises may be made healthful. In this chapter we 
shall try to learn how they may be made beautiful. 
Leading educators everywhere hold now that the school 
and its surroundings should be the most beautiful 
place in the entire community. Our first problem, 
then, is to see why the school environment should 
be esthetic. 

Esthetic Training. A beautiful school environment 
is necessary, in the first place, because it is an im- 
portant factor in the esthetic training of children. 
One of the aims or purposes of education is to give 
pupils the ability to appreciate things that are beau- 
tiful. Such ability is a source of genuine pleasure to 
its possessor. There is real enjoyment in a beautiful 
picture, a flower, or a landscape to one who has been 
trained to appreciate the beautiful. 

It is well known now that one of the best ways to 
arouse and cultivate an esthetic interest is to live in 
the midst of beautiful surroundings. Flowers, pic- 
tures, shrubs, well-kept lawns, and attractive buildings 
seem to have a silent influence on one's life which 
causes him to come, in time, to admire the beauty 
with which he is surrounded. It is well known, too, 
that this influence is much greater during the years 

113 



114 Rural School Management 

of childhood and youth than it is in later years. If 
one does not acquire a taste for the beautiful during 
these early years, it is very difficult, as a rule, for 
him to acquire it later in life. Children should, there- 
fore, be surrounded, as far as possible, with the things 
which will help to develop in them a love for the beau- 
tiful as it is revealed in nature and in art. 

Moral Influence. A second need for an esthetic 
school environment is found in its moral influence 
on the lives of children. It is pretty generally con- 
ceded now that clean, attractive, pleasant surround- 
ings give rise to purer thoughts and nobler deeds than 
does an ugly environment. A prominent educator 
has said : " The good picture is like a sermon teach- 
ing a great moral truth, or like a poem idealizing some 
important aspect of life." Ugliness seems somehow 
to suggest that which is low and base, while beauty 
appeals to the higher and nobler aspects of our nature. 
''It is easier to be good and think noble thoughts 
amid pleasant surroundings than in the midst of Mgly 
ones.'' 

Influence on School Attendance. Experience has 
shown that attractive school premises tend to promote 
regularity of attendance on the part of pupils. This 
Yi precisely what we should expect. Dirt, filth, ugliness, 
are naturally repulsive, while cleanliness and beauty 
are attractive. A well-kept schoolhouse, surrounded 
by grounds made beautiful with lawns, trees, shrubs, 
and flowers, has a drawing power over pupils. For 
children who come from homes where conditions are 
not esthetic, such a school affords a sense of relief, a 
pleasant change ; for those who come from homes of 
culture and refinement it supplies a homelike and 
congenial atmosphere. Very naturally children are 



Beautifying the School Premises 115 

more attracted by a school environment of this type 
than they are by one which is bleak and desolate and 
neglected in appearance. 

Influence on Home Life. It should be clearly 
understood that one of the important functions of 
any school measure is to influence the lives of children 
outside of school — to make them healthier, happier, 
and more helpful in their homes and in their relations 
with other people. We have seen that this is es- 
pecially true of school hygiene. It is equally true 
of school beautification. Esthetic school surroundings 
will give pupils such a taste for the beautiful as will 
cause them to want similar conditions in their homes. 
These conditions they will try to maintain in their 
present homes, as far as possible, and later, in their 
own homes when they have become homemakers. 
To the end, then, that children may have a more 
pleasant, a more attractive, a more refined home life, 
it is important that their school surroundings shall be 
such as will cultivate the esthetic element in their 
natures. 

Summary. An esthetic school environment has four functions : 
(1) It cultivates in pupils a love for and an appreciation of the 
things cultured people enjoy; (2) it has an uplifting moral in- 
fluence on children ; (3) it makes the school more inviting, thereby 
tending to promote regularity of attendance ; and (4) it serves to 
bring about a more esthetic home environment. 

II. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

Indifference and Lack of Funds. Any attempt to 
beautify the schoolhouse and grounds is likely to 
meet with the same difficulties that hinder the im- 
provement of the school in other respects. Chief 
among these are the indifference of school boards and 



116 Rural School Management 

patrons and the lack of sufficient funds. Methods 
of dealing with these difficulties are discussed in 
Chapter II, hence they need not be repeated in this 
connection. Beautifying the school premises is one 
of the important purposes for which the methods of 
arousing interest and raising money previously de- 
scribed may and should be used. 

Neglect during Vacations. As most schools are at 
present conducted, there is a period of from three to 
five months each year during which the school is not 
in session. There is, as a rule, no one whose special 
duty it is to look after the school premises during 
these vacations. Consequently they are neglected. 
The lawn is not mowed, the flowers and shrubs are 
not cared for, and the playground becomes covered 
with weeds. In some instances cattle or hogs have 
access to the grounds and damage the premises in 
various ways. 

In some of our best schools this difficulty has been 
overcome through the use of the school premises as a 
community meeting place. It has become the prac- 
tice in some districts to use the schoolhouse and grounds 
for community picnics or other social gatherings. 
Where this is done, there is a genuine pride in the 
school premises and great care is taken to keep every- 
thing in first-class condition. In fact, the school 
grounds have become, in some instances, a public 
park, and the people of the district strive to make 
them one of the most beautiful spots in the community. 

Frequent Change of Teachers. Another serious 
handicap to the beautifying of the school premises 
lies in the frequent change of teachers. In nearly 
all cases, in this country, rural teachers are elected 
for a term of only one year. In a great majority of 



Beautifying the School Premises 117 

cases the teacher remains in the same school for one 
or at most two school terms. This frequent changing 
of teachers tends to hinder the work of beautifying 
the school in two ways. (1) The teacher, when elected, 
has no assurance that he will be able to remain in the 
position for more than one school year. He is, there- 
fore, less inclined to make any plans which cannot be 
carried to completion during one term. The result is 
that a great many teachers never make any plans for 
the permanent improvement of the school grounds. 
(2) When a teacher has adopted a plan of procedure, 
a change of teachers before the plan is fully carried 
out is likely to result in the abandonment of the plan 
by the new teacher. Any teacher can do a great 
deal to improve appearances even in one term ; but a 
plan of improvement which aims at making the school 
premises permanently beautiful requires a longer time 
to be put into effect. 

Both this difficulty and the one arising from long 
vacations have been overcome in quite a number of 
districts. One of the methods used is to arouse an 
interest on the part of the school board. Some teachers 
have succeeded in getting their boards to take charge 
of the entire matter of school improvement. In such 
cases the board usually adopts a definite plan for the 
beautification of the premises and proceeds to put it 
into operation. It furnishes the funds and makes all 
arrangements for both the interior decoration and the 
outside improvements. It employs some one to care 
for the grounds and mow the lawns during vacations. 
In one instance two boys who lived near the school 
were engaged for this purpose. If there is a change 
of teachers, the board explains its plans to the new 
teacher and asks his cooperation in creating and 



118 Rural School Management 

maintaining the conditions desired. A change of 
teachers, therefore, does not seriously interrupt the 
program or plan mapped out. With such an attitude 
as this on the part of the school board, the school 
premises are certain not to be neglected or to become 
unsightly. 

The school board is, by right, the proper authority 
to make provision for the beautification of the school. 
Consequently, an effort should always be made to get 
the board to undertake the matter. When this fails, 
the parent-teacher association furnishes an excellent 
means and has been used with success in a great many 
instances. Where there is an organization of this 
sort, the usual plan is to place the beautification of 
the school in the hands of a patrons' committee on 
school improvement. This committee should be com- 
posed of those patrons, either men or women, who are 
most deeply interested in the school and who have a 
keen appreciation of beautiful surroundings. In addi- 
tion to their interest in and knowledge of what ought 
to be done, such patrons are, in most cases, the very 
men and women who have most influence in arousing 
public interest and in raising the funds necessary to 
carry on the improvements needed. This method of 
bringing about the beautification of the school environ- 
ment has been highly successful in many instances and 
at present seems to be the most practicable means 
available. How the teacher may bring about the 
formation of such an organization is discussed in a 
later section of this chapter. 

In a few instances the hindrances to school beautifica- 
tion have been overcome by providing a teacher's 
home in connection with the school. The usual plan 
is to erect a teacher's cottage on the school grounds. 



Beautifying the School Premises 119 

This movement has as yet made only a beginning in 
this country, but wherever the plan has been tried 
it has given excellent results. 

Summary, The chief difficulties met with in beautifying the 
school premises are (1) lack of interest among patrons and in- 
adequate school funds ; (2) neglect of school property during vaca- 
tions; and (3) too frequent changes of teachers. 

m. HOW TO BEAUTIFY THE SCHOOL PREMISES 

The Problem. A beautiful school environment is a 
very important factor in the esthetic and moral train- 
ing of children and in making school life more attractive 
and home life more refined. In a great many districts 
steps have already been taken to provide school sur- 
roundings which have a wholesome influence along 
these lines. But, despite the progress which has been 
made, thousands of country boys and girls are still 
attending schools where the surroundings both within 
the schoolroom and on the grounds are lacking in the 
things that make for refinement and culture. How 
to transform an unsightly, neglected school environ- 
ment into one of beauty and attractiveness is a very 
important problem in the management of the school. 
In this section we shall try to learn what constitutes 
an esthetic school environment and what the teacher 
can do to bring about the conditions desired. 

1. Beautifying the Interior Surroundings 

Cleanliness. We have already learned that clean- 
liness is essential to health. It is also essential to 
beauty. One of the first steps in beautifying the 
schoolroom is to clean it up and see that it is kept 
clean. Floors, windows, woodwork, and furniture 



120 Rural School Management 

should be kept just as clean as possible. All cobwebs 
should be removed and the stove kept polished. The 
litter which necessarily results from school work, or 
from putting fuel into the stove should be cleared 
away. A little attention to such matters as these 
will help to give the room an attractive appearance. 

Walls and Woodwork. The walls and woodwork 
offer the very best opportunity for beautifying the 
interior of the schoolroom. 

Color Schemes. The aim or purpose of all interior 
tinting and painting is to give the room a cheerful, 
attractive appearance. No invariable rule can be 
given for accomplishing this end. In most modern 
schools, however, some such scheme as the following 
is usually employed : The floors are made the darkest 
part of the room, the wainscoting is slightly lighter, 
the window and door casings and the doors themselves 
are finished in the natural color of the wood, the walls 
are tinted a light, soft color, and the ceiling is made 
still lighter. By this plan the colors grow gradually 
lighter from the floor to the ceiling. In buildings 
where the woodwork is finished in natural color the 
scheme may be carried out by tinting the walls a cream, 
a light gray, a light bluish gray, a light greenish yellow, 
or a light buff, and the ceiling a very delicate cream. 

Which of the foregoing colors should be used in 
any given case depends mainly on the direction from 
which the light enters the room. If the windows are 
on the north side, a color having an element of yellow 
should be used, since this will give the room an ap- 
pearance of warmth. But if the windows are on the 
south side, or if much direct sunlight enters the room, 
a light gray or light bluish gray should be used be- 
cause of the cool effect it produces. 



Beautifying the School Premises 121 

In an old building where it is necessary to paint 
the woodwork, the same general color should be chosen 
for the wood and the walls, the wood being made a 
darker shade than the wall. A dark gray wood, a 
light gray wall, and a still lighter ceiling make a very 
good combination in such cases. 

A teacher who has had no experience or training in 
working out color schemes should write to the extension 
department of his state agricultural college or to the 
art department of his state university or normal school 
for advice in the matter. In asking for this advice 
he should send a description of the room, stating its 
length, width, and height ; the number and position of 
the windows; the ratio of lighting surface; the loca- 
tion of the blackboards; and the color of the wood- 
work, furniture, and window shades. 

Wall Paper. In some instances it may be imprac- 
ticable to tint the walls and ceiling. If the room 
has been previously papered, for instance, it may be 
impossible to remove the old paper completely. In 
all cases where tinting is impracticable, wall paper 
may be used. Where this is done, care should be 
taken not to use figured or gaudy patterns. Plain 
ingrains should be selected with a view to carrying 
out some such color scheme as that suggested in con- 
nection with tinting. 

Pictures. In addition to having a beautiful interior 
finish, every schoolroom should have a few good pic- 
tures for wall decoration. For a room of the usual size 
not more than four or five pictures are needed, since more 
than this number tends to produce a crowded effect. 

All wall pictures should be large enough to be seen 
and studied with ease from the remotest part of the 
room. They should be neatly framed with plain 



122 Rural School Management 

molding, finished, in general, in brown or black. They 
should be suspended from a picture molding, wherever 
possible, and allowed to hang as low as the blackboard 
will permit. A space of a few inches should intervene 
between the top of the board and the frame in order to 
give the picture a background of wall color all around it. 
Every picture used for schoolroom decoration 
should be a recognized work of art. All loud-colored 
pictures, all gaudy advertisements, and most of the 
pictures sent out with calendars attached are out of 
place on the schoolroom wall. Real works of art 
which deal with animal life, landscapes, historical 
events, child life, domestic scenes, and famous people 
have been found especially interesting to children. 
It is not possible to give here the names of all, or 
even very many, pictures which are suitable for school- 
room decoration. The following list contains the 
names of a few that are rather widely used for this 
purpose. Art publishers' catalogues should be con- 
sulted for the names and illustrations of others. 

Sistine Madonna, by Raphael 

The Gleaners, by Millet 

The Angelus, by Millet 

Summer Evening, by Adam 

Deer in Forest, by Bonheur 

The Children of Charles I, by Van Dyck 

By the Riverside, by Lerolle 

Pilgrims Going to Church, by Boughton 

The Shepherdess, by Teralle 

Can't You Talk, by Holmes 

The Horse Fair, by Bonheur 

Washington Crossing the Delaware, by Leutze 

Signing the Declaration of Independence, by Trumbull 

Spring, by Corot 

Head of Christ, by Hofmann 

Dance of the Nymphs, by Corot 



Beautifying the School Premises 123 

Flowers. A few well-chosen and well-kept flowers 
constitute another element of cheerfulness and attrac- 
tiveness in the schoolroom. In many sections of 
the country it is possible to have a small window 
garden of growing plants during most or all of the 
school term. A fern, some geraniums, and a box or 
two of hyacinths, tulips, or other hardy bulbs will make 
a good collection. All house plants should be kept in 
suitable flower pots or in boxes painted to harmonize 
with the color scheme of the room. They should also 
be well cared for and kept in a thrifty condition. 

With a little assistance from the teacher the pupils 
can easily manage the window garden, and will take 
great pride in doing so. With an eight- or ten-inch 
board and two shelf brackets the larger pupils can 
make a window seat or shelf for the flower pots. They 
can also make flower stands and boxes where these 
are needed. If the pupils are permitted and en- 
couraged to take care of the flowers in school, they 
are very likely to become more interested in such 
matters in their homes. 

Summary. The first step in creating an esthetic school en- 
vironment is to beautify the interior of the room. To accomplish 
this end, the schoolroom must be kept thoroughly clean; the 
ceiling and walls must be tinted or papered and the woodwork 
finished in colors that produce a pleasing effect; a few choice 
large pictures should decorate the walls ; and where climatic condi- 
tions permit there should be a small window garden consisting of 
a few thrifty potted plants. 

What the Teacher Can Do. Having learned what 
is required to make the interior of the schoolroom 
beautiful, our next problem is to see what the teacher 
can do to bring about the conditions desired in schools 
where they do not already exist. 



124 Rural School Management 

In the matter of pictures one of the first things to 
do is to get catalogues from a few reliable art publish- 
ing companies. The names of such publishers can be 
obtained by writing to the art department of the 
nearest state normal school. From these catalogues 
the teacher can learn the names and prices of pictures 
suitable for schoolroom decoration. If the school 
board is unwilling to furnish the funds for purchasing 
the pictures, an entertainment of some sort can be 
given to raise the money. In one school the teacher 
sent for a few small pictures at her own expense. 
These she used as the basis of some '' opening exer- 
cise " talks on pictures. The pupils became deeply 
interested. A box social and a " Bonheur-Millet " 
entertainment were held to raise the funds needed to 
buy the three or four pictures the teacher and pupils 
had selected. The entertainment consisted of music 
and essays and talks dealing with the life and works 
of Bonheur and Millet. The box social netted more 
money than was required to purchase the pictures 
they had selected. 

Traveling art exhibits constitute another method of 
getting good pictures. These are collections of fine 
pictures sent to schools for exhibit purposes. The 
usual plan is to place the pictures on display in 
the schoolhouse and charge a small fee for seeing 
them. These exhibits are sent by the companies on 
condition that the school will pay the transportation 
charges and spend the net proceeds with the com- 
pany for pictures for the school. The names of 
companies which send out such exhibits can be 
obtained from the county or state superintendent of 
schools or from the art department of a state normal 
school. 



Beautifying the School Premises 125 

With a little help from the teacher, pupils can make 
frames for the pictures at practically no cost. In a 
school in one of the southern states, frames were made 
from lath obtained free at a near-by sawmill. These 
were cut the proper lengths, planed, sandpapered, 
and joined by flat joints. They were then stained 
either black or brown with Diamond Dyes and polished 
with Johnson's floor wax. The pictures were mounted 
on gray, brown, or white cardboard. The glass was 
cut at the drug store and cost from ten to thirty-five 
cents, depending on the size.^ 

Another teacher's experience in the matter of interior 
decoration may be helpful in this connection. Upon 
arriving at her school this teacher found conditions 
that were decidedly unattractive and cheerless. The 
building had never been painted, the lock to the door 
was broken, the windows were coated with smoke, 
and the floors literally covered with dirt. The teacher 
was not accustomed to such surroundings. Immedi- 
ately after taking the names of the pupils present, 
she asked for volunteers to help her clean up the 
room. The pupils responded cheerfully. Buckets 
were borrowed from neighboring farmhouses, water 
was carried by the children, the floor was scrubbed, 
and the desks and windowpanes were thoroughly 
cleaned. The next morning when the children arrived 
they found muslin curtains at the two windows. The 
place had been transformed. A little later, when 
one of the school directors came in, he praised the 
teacher and the pupils and offered to assist in any 
way he could in the improvement of the premises. 
Through the support of the school board thus gained 
and with funds raised at an entertainment, the school- 

1 Bulletin No. V, State Department of Education, Mississippi. 



126 Rural School Management 

house was painted inside and out, a few good pictures 
were hung on the walls, and the school grounds were 
cleaned up and made more attractive.^ 

2. Beautifying the Outdoor Surroundings 

The School Building. An esthetic outdoor school 
environment consists of an attractive building set in 
the midst of beautiful surroundings. If the district 
has a new building constructed according to present- 
day ideas of sanitation, beauty, and usefulness, the 
first step toward an esthetic environment has been 
taken. Where such a building does not exist, the 
first problem is to make the one which does exist as 
attractive as possible. The fact that a building is 
old is no reason why it should be entirely neglected 
and allowed to become unsightly. To see that the 
schoolhouse is in good repair and well painted is the 
first step in beautifying the outdoor premises. This 
is so evident that it needs no further comment here. 

The School Grounds. Functions. In making plans 
for the improvement of school grounds its three main 
functions must be taken into consideration. These 
functions are : (1) Recreational. The school ground 
should be first of all a school and neighborhood play- 
ground and recreational center. (2) Instructional. 
The grounds should contain a school garden which, 
along with the trees, shrubs, and flowers, may be used 
as a laboratory for the regular school work, especially 
the work in agriculture and nature study. (3) Es- 
thetic. The school premises should be as attractive 
as possible because of their importance as a factor in 
the esthetic and moral training of children. 

^Beautifying Our Schools, State Department of Education, 
Virginia. 



Beautifying the School Premises 127 

Playgrounds. Play in connection with schools is 
such an important matter that a separate chapter 
is given to this subject. All that need be said here 
is that in planning for the improvement of the school 
grounds provision should be made first for a play- 
ground and second for a school garden. After these 
have been laid out, the rest of the grounds may be 
planned with a view to making it esthetic. 

Walks and Driveways. A school ground with well- 
established and well-constructed walks and driveways 
is much more beautiful than one in which paths and 
roads are made haphazard across the premises. Just 
what walks and drives are needed in any given case 
depends on local conditions. In general, there should 
be one or two walks from the main traveled roadway 
to the front entrance of the building; another to the 
well; one to each of the outhouses, if outdoor toilets 
are used; and a drive to the fuel house and horse 
sheds, if these conveniences are provided. Gracefully 
curved walks are more artistic than straight ones 
where the distance is not too short. Cement walks 
are preferable, but where these are impracticable, dirt 
walks covered with gravel or cinders are very satis- 
factory. The driveways should be graveled or cin- 
dered in all cases. 

Lawns. For a long time we have recognized the 
value of a good, well-kept lawn as a means of beautify- 
ing our home premises. It is equally important in 
connection with school premises. A great many 
schools already have, and every school should have, 
a beautiful lawn. 

The amount of lawn which any given school can 
have depends on the size of the school grounds. Where 
the grounds are small and practically all of the space 



128 Rural School Management 

is needed for play and a school garden, the grass plot 
must be confined to a portion of the front yard. But 
where there is ample ground for all purposes, the entire 
front yard and a portion of the grounds at the sides 
of the schoolhouse may be set apart for a lawn. 

In the making of a lawn three things are very im- 
portant: (1) the preparation of the soil; (2) the 
selection of the kind of seed and the best time for 
seeding; and (3) the care of the lawn. No specific 
directions can be given here, since the methods to be 
used vary with different sections of the country. 
The teacher who does not already understand these 
matters as applied to his community should write to 
his state agricultural college for definite information 
on these points. 

Trees. Trees are needed on the school ground both 
for protection and for ornamentation. They are 
needed almost everywhere to furnish shade from the 
summer's sun. In some sections of the country, 
especially in prairie sections where the winter storms 
are severe, they are used to form windbreaks or 
shelter belts. When used for this purpose, they are 
usually set so as to form dense groves on the north 
and west sides of the grounds. Where windbreaks 
are not needed, a few trees planted irregularly along 
the boundary lines with a cluster, or perhaps a belt, 
in the rear of the grounds are all that are needed. If 
the grounds are large, a massive tree or two which 
stand apart from the others add to the beauty of the 
premises. Care should be taken to keep the center 
of the grounds open and the front view of the house 
and lawn unobstructed by trees. 

Success in tree growing depends mainly on three 
things : (1) the kind of trees planted ; (2) the time 



Beautifying the School Premises 129 

and method of transplanting ; and (3) the care of the 
trees after planting. In general, the trees that are 
native to the community make the best varieties for 
the school grounds. These are, as a rule, as beautiful 
as any that could be procured, and, besides, are better 
adapted to the soil in which they are to be planted. 
Elms, maples, ashes, oaks, and poplars are found 
almost everywhere and will grow on a great variety 
of soils. Every community will have other varieties 
that can be added to the list or substituted for any 
of the foregoing which are not easily obtained. 

Every teacher who is inexperienced or untrained in 
tree culture should seek information which is applicable 
to his particular community. Agricultural colleges 
everywhere are glad to be of service in the improve- 
ment of school grounds and will furnish any teacher, 
upon request, reliable information as to the kinds of 
trees to plant, the best time for and methods of putting 
out trees, and the cultivation and' protection they 
need after planting. 

Shrubs, Vines, and Flowers. '' Beautifying results 
are more quicklj^ obtained with shrubs than with 
trees and some of them have long and lovely lives." 
To produce the best effect, shrubs should be planted 
in clusters around the outhouses, in the fence corners, 
at irregular intervals along the borders, and in masses 
against the background of trees in the rear. In bleak 
countries a rather heavy planting of evergreens about 
the borders should be used in place of so much shrub- 
bery. 

With shrubs as with trees, the varieties which grow 
at large in the community should be used on the school 
grounds. The willows, the sumac, the elder, witch- 
hazel, dogwood, the haw, the honeysuckle, and the 



130 Rural School Management 

lilac are excellent, and most of them are to be found 
in almost any section of the country. 

Vines, such as the common woodbine and the 
clematis, can be used to good advantage to screen 
the outhouses or other unsightly objects. Where 
necessary a trellis or a wire netting can be easily con-^ 
structed for the vines. A wild grapevine or two in 
connection with tall shrubs or old trees will help to 
beautify the premises. 

To complete the beautification, a few flowers are 
needed. Some of these may be grown with good effect 
along the sides of the building, a bed or two of bulbs 
may occupy the curves or angles in the walks, while 
some of the taller and long-lived ones may be planted 
along the borders with the shrubbery as a background. 
(See frontispiece.) 

Summary. The essentials to a beautiful outdoor school en- 
vironment are : (1) a school building that is kept in good repair 
and well painted ; (2) school grounds on which are found artistic 
walks and driveways, a beautiful lawn, a variety of trees along the 
borders and in the rear, shrubs arranged in clusters here and there, 
vines to conceal all unsightly objects, and a few flowers to give a 
final touch of beauty to the whole setting. 

What the Teacher Can Do. Success in transforming 
a bare, cheerless school ground into such a one as we 
have described depends, in a very large measure, on 
two things, both of which an energetic teacher can 
easily accomplish : (1) having a definite plan, and 
(2) enlisting the cooperation of pupils and patrons in 
carrying out the plan adopted. 

Making the Plan. After the teacher has had time 
to make a fairly careful survey of the school premises, 
he should begin the making of a plan for their permanent 
improvement. In doing this he should take the pupils 










131 



132 Rural School Management 

into partnership with him and let them assist in every 
way they can. The pupils will enjoy helping to make 
all of the measurements necessary to draw a diagram 
or map of the premises. On this map should be 
shown as accurately as possible the location of the 
school building and other objects which exist on the 
grounds, such as outhouses, horse sheds, trees, etc. 
The next step is to plan and lay off on the map any 
improvements that are to be made. The playground 
and the school garden should be marked off, the walks 
and drives sketched, and the place for the lawn in- 
dicated. Then the places for the trees, shrubs, and 
flower beds should be located and, if possible, the 
varieties to be planted decided upon and indicated 
on the margin of the map. 

If at any time in the working out of the plan the 
teacher and pupils are in doubt as to the best arrange- 
ment and varieties of plants or as to the preparation 
required for the planting, the agricultural college 
should be called upon for the information needed. 
When a plan has been worked out in this way, both 
teacher and pupils will have clear ideas of what the 
grounds are to contain and will be in possession of all 
the information. needed to put the plan into effect. 

Securing Cooperation of Pupils and Patrons. After 
the plans are made, the next step is to get them carried 
out. To this end the teacher needs the cooperation 
of both pupils and patrons. If he has permitted the 
pupils to assist in making the plans, he will have 
done much to arouse their interest in the beautification 
of the school. Following this a Junior Civic Society 
or School Improvement League can be formed among 
the children to assist in beautifying both the interior 
and the outdoor surroundings. If such an organiza- 



Beautifying the School Premises 133 

tion does not seem practicable, then various com- 
mittees can be appointed, such as a flower committee, 
committee on shrubs, committee on pictures, etc. 
Usually pupils consider it an honor to be asked to 
help in this way and take great interest in doing the 
work assigned to them. The interest thus aroused 
will, in many cases, spread to the homes and may be 
the means of securing the cooperation of their parents. 

A very good method of securing the interest and 
cooperation of patrons is to start with a Clean-up Day 
or " bee " for the improvement of the school. Get 
all of the patrons to meet at the schoolhouse at an 
appointed time. Let each one have some part, if 
possible, in putting the house and grounds in order. 
When all have become interested through doing some- 
thing for the school, have some influential patron 
propose an organization for the permanent beaut ifica- 
tion of the premises. Get one or two others to make 
short talks in favor of the proposition. Arrangements 
for the leader and the talks should be made before the 
meeting is called. At an appropriate place in the 
proceedings let the teacher be asked for suggestions. 
By using the map previously made or by drawing a 
sketch on the blackboard, he can explain in a few 
words the main features of the plan for the improve- 
ment of the surroundings. 

The outcome of such a meeting should be the forma- 
tion of an organization of patrons, such as a parent- 
teacher association or a school improvement league. 
If this is done, suitable committees can be appointed 
to carry out the plans agreed upon. In cases where 
a permanent organization is not formed, a sufficient 
number of patrons will probably volunteer to make 
most or all of the improvements needed. Some will 



134 Rural School Management 

agree to prepare the soil for the lawn ; others, to haul 
gravel for the walks; and still others, to provide the 
trees and shrubs. This, together with what the 
teacher and pupils can do, will, in most instances, 
serve to start the movement for a beautiful school. 

But the planting of trees, shrubs, etc., is only the 
beginning of permanent school ground improvement. 
If the interest ends here, the grounds will probably 
fall into neglect and the trees will be permitted to die 
for want of attention. It is extremely important 
that the community interest in the matter shall be 
kept alive and increased, if possible. Appropriate 
observance of special days will help to do this. A 
good program on Arbor Day will stimulate interest, 
if the patrons are invited and some of them asked to 
take part. In some communities Flower Day and 
flower shows have been conducted with good results. 
But perhaps the best method of insuring a continued 
interest in the beautification of the school is to have a 
permanent organization of patrons — a parent-teacher 
association with a school improvement committee, or 
a school improvement league. Such an organization 
will be especially valuable both in carrying out the 
plans for beautifying the premises and in preventing 
their neglect during vacations. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Carney: Country Life and the Country School, pages 223-229. 
Cubberley: Rural Life and Education, Chapter VI. 
FOGHT : The American Rural School, Chapters VIII, IX. 
Kern: Among Country Schools, Chapters III, V. 
Kern: Report of Winnebago County, 1910, Chapters I, II. 
Kern: Report of Winnebago County, 1911, Chapters II, III. 
State Department of Education of Maine : Improvement of School 
Buildings and Grounds. 



Beautifying the School Premises 135 

State Department of Education of Wisconsin : The School Beauti- 
ful. 

State Department of Education of Virginia: Beautifying Our 
Schools. 

Youth's Companion: How to Set Out Trees and Shrubbery. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. State a difficulty not mentioned in the text which might 
be encountered in attempting to beautify the school premises, and 
show how it could be overcome. 

2. Write a letter such as you would send to the art department 
of your state university or normal school asking for a color scheme 
and a list of pictures suitable for use in your school. Give such 
a description of the room as the department would need in order 
to give the information desired. 

3. Criticize the interior painting or papering in the schoolroom 
you are now using, giving reasons for your views. 

4. Assuming that you have the information referred to in 
Exercise 2, just how would you go about getting these improve- 
ments for your school? 

5. What shrubs, vines, and flowers would you recommend for 
use in beautifying a school ground in your community? Where 
and how could they be obtained? 

6. Make a list of five things the teacher and pupils can do to 
improve the appearance of a dirty, dingy schoolhouse and an un- 
sightly school ground. 

7. Enumerate the steps you would take to get your school 
board and patrons interested in the permanent beautification of 
the school premises. 

8. Write a paper, as if for a teachers' association or a parent- 
teachers' meeting, on the topic "Why the School Premises Should 
Be Beautiful." 



CHAPTER VII 
PLAY AND THE SCHOOL PLAYGROUND 

I. FUNCTIONS OF PLAY AND PLAYGROUNDS 

A GREAT deal has been said and written of late con- 
cerning play in connection with schools. In fact, the 
movement for a wide use of play in the training of 
children is one of the foremost tendencies in education 
at the present time. How to make adequate provision 
for the play activities of the pupils is one of the main 
problems in the management of the school. In our 
study of the problem we shall try to discover first what 
purposes or functions play serves in the education of 
children. 

Hygienic Function. Wholesome food, fresh air, 
sunshine, and exercise are the four conditions which are 
essential to the healthy growth and development of 
children. With the exception of the first, these con- 
ditions are supplied adequately only through play and 
the playground. It is a well-established principle of 
hygiene that children must have a certain amount of 
exercise in order to keep their bodies healthy and 
vigorous. Through exercise the muscles become firmer, 
the bones tougher, the lungs larger, and the heart 
stronger. A well-known authority on play says: 
*' In that shortened process we call childhood every 
faculty, every power, every organ that fails to receive 
its due exercise shrivels, and health by so much suf- 
fers and by so much the man becomes less a man.'' 

136 



Play and the School Playground 137 

But to be most effective in promoting this end the 
exercise one takes must be joyous and spontaneous 
— it must be an activity which is liked and is entered 
into freely and cheerfully of one's own accord. To 
meet these requirements nature has wisely endowed 
us with a desire to play. Play is the only form of 
exercise small children can take and it is the best form 
for people of any age. 

Exercise is most beneficial to health when it is taken 
in the open air and sunshine. Even our best venti- 
lated schoolrooms do not meet the needs of children 
for fresh air. Conditions indoors may be made fairly 
satisfactory for study, but when children play they 
should be out of doors, if possible, where there is an 
abundance of fresh air to purify the blood, and sun- 
shine to destroy any dangerous disease germs that 
may infest their clothing. The first function of the 
school playground, then, is to promote the health of 
the pupils. It does this by providing a means for an 
abundance of free, joyous exercise in the open air and 
sunshine. 

Educative Functions. In addition to promoting 
health and physical vigor, play is a very important 
factor in the intellectual, moral, and social training of 
children. 

Intellectual Development. Play develops the child 
both physically and mentally. As a matter of fact, 
physical development is necessary to mental devel- 
opment. Psychologists tell us that there is a very 
close relation between muscles, brain, and mind. Play 
activity develops the muscles and the brain centers 
which control the muscles and, since the mind is in- 
timately related to the brain, the mental powers are 
correspondingly developed. Our best authorities as- 



138 Rural School Management 

sert that a child who has not had abundant oppor- 
tunities for play is not capable of as high a degree of 
mental development as is one who has had such oppor- 
tunities. " A simple little game like tag or hide-and- 
seek calls many faculties into exercise and keeps them 
alert.'^ 

Furthermore, play and games serve as an excellent 
means of getting children to learn certain subjects in 
school. Bean bag games and playing at keeping store, 
for instance, furnish an excellent motive for learning 
the number combinations in arithmetic. Language, 
word recognition, and spelling are now taught to a 
considerable extent in many schools by connecting 
them with games which the children like to play. 
The desire to act a story or an event or to construct a 
scene on the sand table can be and is often used as a 
means of getting children to study such subjects as 
reading, literature, and history. 

Moral Influence. One of the most important facts 
about play is its influence on the morals of children 
and young people. A great many teachers have ob- 
served that vigorous play at recess and noon intermis- 
sions makes it much easier to discipline the school. 
When pupils have an opportunity to use their surplus 
energy in vigorous, wholesome play, they are less in- 
clined to get into mischief of any sort. 

In cities it has been found that playgrounds are a 
very great help in breaking up destructive street gangs. 
In some instances the opening of playgrounds has 
reduced the amount of crime among boys fifty per 
cent. Some cities are now finding playgrounds to be a 
business investment, the amount saved in criminal cost 
being greater than the cost of conducting the play- 
grounds. 



Play and the School Playground 139 

Social Training. Play has been called nature's 
great teacher. In their plays and games from day to 
day children acquire a great variety of experiences, 
most of which are very useful to them. As children 
play together they become less selfish, and more sym- 
pathetic toward each other; they learn, in time, to 
exercise self-control, to get along together; in their 
team games they learn that each one has an impor- 
tant part to play and that the success of the team 
depends on each one's doing his part well. Cooper- 
ation, helpfulness, division of labor, forbearance, self- 
control — these are some of the qualities which chil- 
dren acquire through the necessity of having to 
practice them in their plays. 

Again, in their imitative and constructive plays 
children learn a great deal about the affairs of grown- 
up people. When they play at keeping house, school, 
or store; when they act out some public event, or 
play at being soldier, doctor, or minister; when they 
construct a doll house, a farm scene, or a village street, 
they necessarily acquire some insight into a few of the 
activities of their elders. It must be remembered 
that when children play at such things they do so for 
the joy and delight that comes from the play itself, 
and that the social training comes incidentally as a 
by-product of the play. But this fact does not detract 
from the value of the social training. What children 
learn in their play is usually better understood and 
more firmly fixed in their minds than if it were taught 
to them as a school exercise. 

Recreative Function. A third function of play and 
the playground is to furnish a means of recreation both 
for the pupils of the school and for the community at 
large. 



140 Rural School Management 

The importance of suitable recreation for school 
children is thoroughly well understood. Pupils must 
have periods of change and rest from their regular 
school work. The best recreation for them is that 
which comes from getting out on the playground and 
having a thoroughly good time. Pupils who have 
spent a few minutes in wholesome, joyous play out in 
the open air return to their studies refreshed and in- 
vigorated, and with renewed interest in their work. 
Such recreation invariably results in better school 
work and in a better feeling on the part of pupils 
toward the school. 

But recreation is necessary for adults as well as for 
children. One of the greatest drawbacks to country 
life is its lack of opportunity for recreation. Coun- 
try people need diversion and change from the daily 
routine of farm life. It is now believed that the school 
and its playground can and should supply this need. 
A school playground constructed with this end in view 
becomes a public park, a community meeting place, 
where people may go for recreation and diversion. A 
wider use of the rural school playground for picnic 
parties, play festivals, baseball, and other athletic 
contests does much to make country life more enjoy- 
able. Since the schoolhouse and school grounds be- 
long to all the people of the community, there seems 
to be no good reason why they should not be used for 
community recreation. 

Summary. Play and playgrounds have three very important 
functions: (1) hygienic — to promote the health and physical 
vigor of pupils ; (2) educative — to help bring about the intel- 
lectual development and the moral and social training of children ; 
(3) recreative — to furnish wholesome recreation for the pupils 
and for the community at large. 



Play and the School Playground 141 

II. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

Size of School Grounds. One reason why play is 
not more widely used in connection with schools is 
found in the small amount of space available for play 
purposes. School playgrounds, as a rule, are too 
small. This is what we should naturally expect in 
cities where land values are high. But small play- 
grounds are just as common in rural districts, where 
an abundance of land could be had at comparatively 
little cost. In one of the central states it was found 
that four out of ninety-one rural schools in a county 
had no playground, sixty-four had less than an acre, 
fourteen just an acre, and only nine had more than an 
acre. Dresslar found from an investigation of more 
than twelve hundred rural schools in nineteen states 
that " less than 15 % of them are furnished with play- 
grounds large enough to enable the children to play 
with any degree of freedom and vigor.'' 

Just how large a playground for a rural school ought 
to be has not been definitely settled. Estimates vary 
from two to five acres. If the school grounds are to 
be properly beautified with trees and shrubs, to furnish 
ample space for school gardening and play, and to 
serve as a community recreation center, a site of five 
acres is none too large. It is generally agreed that a 
site which contains less than two acres cannot be con- 
sidered at all adequate. 

How to procure larger playgrounds is an important 
problem in a great many districts. In some instances 
the land needed has come as a gift from some wealthy 
and interested patron. In other cases funds for the 
purchase of additional land have been raised through 
private subscriptions solicited by the teacher or by a 



142 Rural School Management 

committee of influential patrons. Still another method 
is to get the people to vote an appropriation for this 
purpose. This method is very likely to fail unless 
the friends of the school do some active work among 
the voters, before the vote is taken. Perhaps a better 
method is to enlist the interest of the school board and get 
them to appropriate the necessary funds. In any com- 
munity where a parent-teacher association or a school 
improvement league can be successfully maintained, the 
problem of larger playgrounds can usually be solved 
through the influence and work of that organization. 

Work versus Play. A second difficulty is the fairly 
widespread belief that country boys and girls do not 
need much play. A great many parents believe that 
the work on the farm and in the home, the chores, 
and the trip to and from the school, furnish the children 
all the exercise they need. But educators under- 
stand clearly now that this view is wrong. Work can- 
not take the place of play. It lacks the joy, the zest, 
and the interest necessary to make the exercise profit- 
able in any great measure. Too much work without 
opportunity to play often becomes drudgery and has 
a depressing effect on the spirits of the child. It is 
now believed that too much work and too little play 
are responsible for the fact that a great many boys 
and girls grow dissatisfied with country life and leave 
the farm at the first opportunity to seek employment 
in the towns and cities. Again, the kind of work which 
children are usually required to do at home is not as 
educative as group play. It does not furnish so much 
exercise for the mental powers or so good an oppor- 
tunity for moral and social training. Therefore, the 
fact that country children have to work is not a suf- 
ficient reason for depriving them of their right to play. 



Play and the School Playground 143 

Parents should be led, if possible, to see the error in 
the view that their children do not need to play. This 
may be done, in part at least, by making the best use 
of the play facilities already at hand. More and 
better games for the recess and noon intermissions, 
a field day exercise or play festival on some Friday 
afternoon, will do much to get the children thoroughly 
interested and may be the means of overcoming the 
prejudices of the parents. An explanation of the im- 
portance of play for country children, given on Parents' 
Day in the school or at a meeting of the parent-teacher 
association, will help to overcome this difficulty. 

Lack of Equipment. Very few rural schools are 
provided with suitable play equipment. A survey of 
the rural schools in one well-to-do county showed that 
ninety-eight of the one hundred and ten schools had no 
play apparatus. A noted authority on the subject of 
play estimates that not more than one per cent of the 
rural schools of the country are supplied with adequate 
play equipment. It is true that children can get a 
great deal of benefit from playing games that require 
no special equipment. However, some equipment is 
highly necessary in order to increase the number and 
variety of playground sports. 

In some of our best schools a part of the play equip- 
ment is made by the larger pupils. This method has 
a twofold advantage over buying such apparatus. 
(1) It arouses a deeper interest in the use of the ma- 
terial, and (2) it furnishes excellent practice in man- 
ual training. Some of the material, however, such as 
croquet sets, volley balls, basket balls, etc., will have 
to be purchased. Funds for this purpose can easily 
be raised by means of school entertainments. This 
method is really preferable to having the school board 



144 Rural School Management 

appropriate the funds, for the reason that it brings the 
people together for social intercourse and serves to 
arouse public interest in the school. 

Lack of Supervision. To get the best results from 
the playground, there must be some one in charge to 
supervise or direct the play activities. There is need 
of some one to help and encourage the children, to 
teach them new games, and to see that there is no 
undesirable conduct on the part of pupils. In most 
rural communities this has to be done, if it is done 
at all, by the teacher. But, heretofore, a majority of 
rural teachers have not understood the very great impor- 
tance of the matter and, consequently, the play activities 
of pupils have been greatly neglected in many schools. 

The best remedy for this difficulty is a teacher who 
will get out and play with the children. Almost any 
teacher already knows or can easily learn what games 
children like to play, how to lay off a playground, and 
what equipment to order. The teacher who takes hold 
of the matter can accomplish a great deal under almost 
any sort of conditions. Special preparation for this 
sort of work is very helpful, but it is not absolutely es- 
sential, and the teacher who has had no training in 
conducting playgrounds should not on that account 
think that he can do nothing. Conducting the play 
activities of children is no more difficult than con- 
ducting their study activities and is usually far more 
enjoyable to the teacher. 

Summary. The most serious hindrances to the movement for 
a wider use of play in connection with schools are: (1) The 
playground, in many instances, is too small; (2) a great many 
parents believe that the work their children do furnishes them all 
the exercise they need ; (3) not many rural schools are at present 
supplied with suitable play equipment; (4) rural teachers, as a 
rule, have had no training in supervising the plays of children. 



Play and the School Playground 145 

m. HOW TO EQUIP AND USE THE SCHOOL PLAY- 
GROUND 

The Problem. Play is now regarded as one of the 
most important factors in the education of children. 
Up to the present time it has not been as widely used 
as it should be. One of the chief reasons for this neg- 
lect is the lack of training on the part of teachers in the 
matter of equipping playgrounds and directing the 
play activities of pupils. The purpose of this section 
is to point out a few things which teachers can and 
should do to provide a richer play life for their pupils. 

1. Equipping the Playground 

The Sand Bin. A sand bin makes possible a very 
profitable form of play for small children. Every rural 
school should have one. The size of the bin must, of 
course, depend on the number of pupils to use it. In 
general, it may vary from six feet by eight feet to as 
much larger as may be needed. It should be made of 
boards from ten to twelve inches wide and should be 
located in some quiet part of the ground so as to keep the 
small children ^way from the playground of the larger 
pupils. If there are no funds available for buying the 
lumber, waste boards can often be brought from the 
homes of pupils. In most cases the larger pupils will 
be glad to make the bin as a service to the school, 
and some interested person will haul the sand. 

Equipment for Games. Group games are known 
to have a much greater value both physically and 
socially than the individual plays of children. In 
many instances the school playground affords coun- 
try children the only opportunity they have of engag- 
ing in play of this sort. Consequently, the equipment 



146 



Rural School Management 



for group games constitutes the most important part 
of the playground equipment. 

In deciding upon the equipment for any particular 
school, the size of the grounds and the number of pupils 
must be taken into consideration. Where the play- 
ground is large and is to be used for both school and 
neighborhood play, provision should be made for the 
following games: volley ball, baseball, indoor base- 
ball, basket ball, tennis, and croquet. 






Volley Ball. 



Volley Ball. Volley ball is now regarded as one of 
the very best games for the school playground. Its 
chief advantages are that it requires little space, can 
be played any month in the year, is suitable for both 
boys and girls, is not limited to any particular number 
of players or to players of any particular age or size. 
It is an excellent game for any school, but is especiallj^ 
well adapted for use in schools in which there are few 
pupils and small playgrounds. 



Play and the School Playground 147 

The equipment consists of a volley ball, two posts, 
and a net. The ball can be purchased from any 
athletic supply house or mail order house, or can be 
ordered through a local dealer. Where it is neces- 
sary to economize, a rope can be used for a net and 
the posts can be made by the pupils from studding or 
saplings. If the teacher is not familiar with the game, 
a copy of Spalding's '* Rules for Volley Ball, Tether- 
ball," etc., can be purchased for ten cents. Complete 
instructions for playing the game are also given in 
Bancroft's '* Games for the Playground, Home, School, 
and Gymnasium," a copy of which should be pur- 
chased for the school library. 

Baseball. Baseball is essentially a game for older 
boys and young men rather than for school children. 
Every school ground which is to be used for com- 
munity recreation should have a baseball field of 
standard size. An occasional contest in this na- 
tional sport adds a great deal to the enjoyment of 
country life. On account of the large amount of space 
required and the large number of players needed, 
baseball is impracticable in a great many rural school 
districts. 

Indoor Baseball. For small schools indoor or play- 
ground baseball is a good substitute for regular base- 
ball. This game is played on a diamond which is 
thirty-five feet on a side. For girls the sides are only 
twenty-seven feet. The equipment consists of a large, 
soft ball and suitable clubs or bats. The ball will have 
to be purchased, but the bats can be made by the 
pupils. The rules for this game are almost the same 
as those for regular baseball. If needed, however, a 
copy of Spalding's " Official Indoor Baseball Guide " 
can be procured at a cost of ten cents. 



148 Rural School Management 

Basket Ball. Basket ball has become one of our most 
popular games both for school and for neighborhood 
sport. Dr. H. S. Curtis states that it is probably 
more generally played than any other game. A great 
many schools, especially the larger schools, now have 
their regular basket ball teams, and contests with other 
schools are quite common. The game is played on a 
court thirty-five by seventy feet. Two poles five or 
six inches in diameter and about fifteen feet long, two 
shields or backgrounds four feet by six feet, a couple 
of baskets, and a basket ball constitute the equipment. 
The poles are set one at each end of the court so as 
to extend about twelve feet above the ground. In 
most communities small trees or saplings can be pro- 
cured for this purpose. In many cases the shields can 
be made by the pupils from waste lumber brought 
from their homes. Where funds for play material are 
meager, discarded potato baskets or barrel hoops may 
be used for baskets. The only item of necessary ex- 
pense, therefore, is the ball. A teacher who is not 
familiar with the game will need a copy of Spalding's 
" Basket Ball Rules." Both the ball and the rules 
may be ordered from any athletic supply dealer. 

Tether-ball. Tether-ball is an excellent game for 
small schools with limited playground area. It re- 
quires very little space and few players, and furnishes 
healthful and enjoyable exercise. The material needed 
for this game consists of a thirteen-foot pole set about 
three feet in the ground, a tether-ball attached by 
means of a cord to the top of the pole, and a tennis 
racket for each player. The pole can easily be pro- 
cured and set up by the pupils, and if tennis rackets 
cannot be provided, thin board paddles can be used 
instead. A regular tether-ball with cord attached 



Play and the School Playground 149 

can be ordered with the volley ball, basket ball, and 
indoor baseball. Complete instructions for laying 
off the court and for playing the game are found in 
Spalding's *' Rules for Volley Ball," also in Bancroft's 
" Games for the Playground, Home, School, and Gym- 
nasium." 

Croquet and Tennis. Croquet and tennis are good 
games for school use and also for community recre- 
ation. A croquet set can usually be purchased in any 
town or village. A book of rules or instructions is 
generally supplied with the set. A tennis outfit will 
have to be ordered from some athletic dealer or mail 
order house. A ten-cent copy of Spalding's "How to 
Play Lawn Tennis " will give all the instructions needed 
for preparing and laying off the court and playing the 
game. 

To the foregoing list there should be added a great 
variety of running games, singing games, bean-bag 
games, and folk dances. These require no special equip- 
ment and are well suited to the needs and interests of 
smaller pupils in particular. Numerous games of these 
types are found in the following books : 

Angell: Play, Little, Brown & Company, Boston, Mass. 

Bancroft: Games for the Playground, Home, School, and Gym- 
nasium, Macmillan Company, New York City. 

BuRCHENAL : Folk Dances and Singing Games, G. Schirmer, Inc., 
New York City. 

Hofer: Popular Folk Games, A. Flanagan Company, Chicago, 
111. 

Johnson: Education by Plays and Games, Ginn & Company, 
Boston, Mass. 

These books should be purchased with library funds 
and placed in the school library. If this cannot be 
done, either an entertainment should be held for raising 



150 Rural School Management 

the funds, or teachers should buy them and retain them 
as their personal property. 

Summary. Large playgrounds which are to be used for both 
school and community recreation should be equipped for playing 
volley ball, baseball, tether-ball, croquet, and tennis. Small play- 
grounds should provide for as many of these as possible, prefer- 
ence being given to volley ball, indoor baseball, tether-ball, and 
croquet. In either case school children should be taught a great 
variety of running, singing, and folk games. 

Equipment for Athletics. In addition to the equip- 
ment for games, provision should be made in every 
school for some simple athletic exercises. In the 
first place there ought to be a running track not to ex- 
ceed one hundred yards in length. A sixty-yard track 
will do if a longer one cannot be provided. This can 
easily be constructed along one side of the school 
grounds. A stop watch will add a great deal of in- 
terest to the running, since it will enable pupils to keep 
their time and compare their records with those made by 
pupils in the same or in other schools. This instrument 
can be bought for $2.50 from any school supply house. 

Jumping Pit and Standards. A jumping pit for the 
broad jump and standards for the high jump should 
be provided. With a little help from the teacher 
these can be constructed by the pupils. The jumping 
pit should be equipped with a take-off board and 
filled with sand or sawdust to prevent injury to the 
pupils. The jumping standards consist of two upright 
pieces fastened to substantial bases. The upright 
pieces are marked off with feet and inch marks. At 
the inch marks holes are made in which pegs are in- 
serted to hold up the crossbar. 

Horizontal Bars. Horizontal bars furnish another 
interesting and profitable form of playground sport. 



Play and the School Playground 151 

To make this apparatus set two posts firmly in the 
ground about five feet apart. Bore a hole in each near 
the top and insert a strong wooden rod or a piece of 
gas pipe for the bar. If there are several children to 
use them, there should be two — one five and a half feet 
and the other six feet high. To prevent injury from 
falling there should be a pit under each bar filled with 
sand or some other soft substance. 

Other Play Apparatus. The slide has been found 
to be a very popular piece of playground apparatus. 
If rightly constructed, it is neither dangerous nor 
especially hard on children's clothing. It can be 
used by a large number of pupils, and furnishes excel- 
lent physical exercise and a lot of wholesome enjoy- 
ment. The slide is difficult to construct; hence it 
is better, in most cases, either to buy one from some 
athletic supply house or to employ a skilled workman 
to make it. In some instances, however, very good 
ones have been made by the pupils. 







(From Play and Recreation in the Open Country, 

by Henry S. Curtis, Ginn and Company.) 

A Homemade Slide at a Rural School. 

The giant stride is an excellent source of amusement, 
especially for the larger pupils. Where funds are 



152 



Rural School Management 



lacking, a very good one can be made by the pupils. 
It consists of a fourteen-foot pole set well in the ground 
and having a wheel mounted on top. To the circum- 

erence of the 
wheel rope lad- 
ders or knotted 
ropes are at- 
tached. In most 
communities a 
pole can be pro- 
cured from a 
near-by forest 
and a cast-off 
wagon or plow 
wheel from a 
blacksmith's 
shop. The rope, 
therefore, is the 
only item of ex- 
pense. 

Swings, see- 
saws, and teeter 
ladders are now 
regarded as less 
important in the 
equipment of a 
school play- 
crround than 

A HOMEMADE GIAM STRIDE. ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ 

thought to be. In fact, Dr. Curtis, one of our best 
authorities, holds that they are out of place on a school 
ground. But it is well known that children enjoy 
swings very much, and since few of the pupils have 
them at their homes, the school ought to supply this 




Play and the School Playground 153 

source of enjoyment. In some schools a satisfactory 
swing can be made by attaching a rope to the limb of 
a tree. The best swings, of course, are those which are 
made of gas pipe and chains. But these are expensive, 
and if the funds are limited, strong wood posts and rope 
will answer. The posts should be set in cement or vefy 
deep in the ground, and the rope must be examined 
frequently to see that it is not worn to the point of 
breaking. 

2. Conducting the Play Activities 

The Play Leader. Need of a Leader. Experience 
has shown that in order to get the best results from 
play there must be a competent leader in charge of 
the playgrounds. There are three reasons why such 
a leader is necessary. First, Children, as a rule, 
know how to play only a few games and they frequently 
grow tired of playing these. When this happens they 
usually sit or stand around or get into some sort of 
mischief. There is need, therefore, of some one to 
play with them and to teach them new games, thus 
stimulating them to play with greater interest and 
vigor. Second. A leader is needed, also, to help the 
pupils organize their teams, and to arrange for contests, 
tournaments, and play festivals. Children usually 
play with a great deal of interest and pleasure, but 
when their games and plays are in preparation for a 
public exhibition, they play with far more enthusiasm. 
Third. Incidentally, a leader serves to prevent dis- 
order and to insure justice and fair play on the play- 
ground. Play loses much of its value if the children 
quarrel or use profane or indecent language, or if a 
few pupils monopolize the best games and apparatus, 
or if the playing is not always fair and sportsmanlike. 



154 Rural School Management 

These bad features the leader prevents, not by force, 
but by his presence and by the sympathetic interest 
he takes in the plays himself. 

Who Should Serve as Play Leader. In large cities 
the playgrounds are usually in charge of an expert 
physical director who devotes his entire time to the 
supervision of a single playground. On account of 
the heavy expense involved and the comparatively 
few people who use the playground, this method is 
hardly practicable for rural schools. Again, a few 
communities have adopted the plan of employing a 
county play supervisor. This official visits the various 
schools in his county and instructs the pupils in new 
games, organizes teams, and arranges for play festi- 
vals and tournaments. But this plan is not yet com- 
mon and perhaps will not be for some time, because of 
the expense necessary to pay the salary of the supervisor. 

The plan which is most widely used among rural 
schools at present is for the regular teacher to serve 
as play leader. This method seems to have the fol- 
lowing advantages: (1) The importance of play to 
children demands that it shall constitute a part of 
every day's program at school. It is desirable, there- 
fore, that the play leader shall be one who is connected 
with the school and who can be present every day to 
assist the pupils at play times. (2) It has been ob- 
served that children play more heartily when the 
teacher plays with them. (3) The duties of play leader 
need not in any way add to the burdens of the teacher. 
In fact, to most teachers the exercise and recreation 
afforded by playing with the children is a profitable 
and enjoyable diversion from the routine work of the 
schoolroom. Furthermore, it is not essential that the 
teacher be an expert physical director or play su- 



Play and the School Playground 155 

pervisor. Any teacher who is in sympathy with chil- 
dren and with play and who is willing to learn a few 
games from the books previously mentioned, can easily 
arouse a genuine interest in play among his pupils 
and develop a public interest in recreation in the 
community in which he teaches. 

Time for Play and Recreation. How to find time for 
play and neighborhood recreation is regarded as one 
of the difficult problems in rural schools and commu- 
nities. But that the enterprising teacher can find a 
solution for this problem has been clearly demonstrated 
in a number of instances. 

Recess and Noon Intermissions. For school children 
the recess and noon intermissions offer an excellent 
opportunity for play. During these periods, on days 
when the weather conditions permit, the school ac- 
tivities should be transferred from the schoolroom to 
the playground, the teacher joining heartily in the 
children's games. The activities for any intermission 
should be determined very largely by what the chil- 
dren want to play. At any time when there is a lack 
of interest some new game should be taught. The 
larger pupils should, in the course of time, learn to play- 
volley ball, indoor baseball, basket ball, dodge ball, 
captain ball, etc. At times some of them will prefer 
the athletic sports — the running, jumping, and 
horizontal bar exercises. The smaller pupils should 
be taught various bean bag games, circle games, and 
simple running games, such as prisoner's base, pull 
away, etc. Folk games and dances for all who wish 
to take part, and the play apparatus, will add interest 
and variety to the play programs. A little encourage- 
ment and help from the teacher will thus make the play 
periods a genuine delight to pupils of all grades. 



156 Rural School Management 

On stormy days when the children cannot play 
out of doors, the intermissions and the periods when 
the room is being flushed with fresh air should be spent 
in playing games, relay races, and gymnastic or calis- 
thenic exercises suitable for indoor use. Miss Ban- 
croft's book, " Games for the Playground, Home, School, 
and Gymnasium," contains an excellent list of exer- 
cises especially adapted for indoor use. 

Between Intermissions. Since the pupils in the 
lower grades cannot study with much profit or for very 
long periods, they should be permitted to go out and 
play between intermissions. If it can be arranged 
so that one of the larger pupils may be free to assist 
the little folks at these times, their play will be much 
more valuable and there will be less danger of dis- 
turbing the school with their noise. 

Before and After School. In some instances it may 
be possible to have a play period before or after school 
hours. Permitting pupils to play before school may 
be a means of getting them to come to school on time. 
A play period after school is objected to in some cases 
on the ground that the children are really needed at 
home, or that they have such long distances to go that 
they cannot remain after school hours. These objec- 
tions seem valid, and only those pupils should be per- 
mitted to remain whose parents give their consent 
thereto. 

Saturday Afternoon Holidays. The right use of the 
playgrounds at the times we have mentioned will go 
a long way toward giving the children a rich play 
experience and, incidentally, will serve to improve the 
attendance at school. But the importance of play 
both to school children and to other young people in 
the community demands a still wider use of the school 



Play and the School Playground 157 

playground. In some rural communities the school 
grounds are used by the young men for baseball and 
basket ball games and for athletic sports on Saturday 
afternoons. This practice the teacher should encour- 
age and promote in every way possible. The move- 
ment should be extended to include the young women 
and school children as well as young men. Saturday 
afternoon should become a regular community holi- 
day. The young women should be invited to the 
school to play croquet and tennis, while the young men 
engage in their favorite games. The school children, 
too, should come for their folk dances and other games 
and to play in the sand bin or on the slide, giant stride, 
and swings. 

When the young people and school children become 
deeply interested in this matter, their parents are very 
likely to catch the spirit and they, too, will meet at 
the schoolhouse for a half day of social intercourse and 
recreation. 

Play Days, Festivals, and Tournaments. The prac- 
tice of giving public exhibitions of the play activities 
of the school is spreading rapidly among rural schools. 
These exhibits usually take the form of a play festival, 
a tournament or athletic meet, or a Play Day. 

Functions. Such events as these have three impor- 
tant purposes or functions. First. They serve to 
arouse a deeper interest in play among school children. 
Children naturally love to play, but it has been found 
that they play with greater zeal and enthusiasm when 
there is a prospect of giving a public exhibition of 
their plays and games. Through the increased inter- 
est thus aroused the pupils get greater value from their 
play activities. It is the same principle as that in- 
volved in having parents' days, school exhibits, and 



158 Rural School Management 

fairs, to get pupils to do their best work in the regular 
subjects. Second. Play days and festivals tend also 
to create a deeper public interest in the school. 
Through them the school is brought into the focus 
of attention. As a result, parents learn more about 
the school, and a closer relation is established be- 
tween teacher and patrons. Third. These public 
occurrences afford an excellent form of neighborhood 
recreation. The need for recreation in rural com- 
munities and the part the school should play in rela- 
tion to this need are admirably stated by Dr. Curtis 
when he says : 

"Rural communities are overserious, and it is necessary that 
the spirit of play shall be introduced into country life. It is the 
lack of recreation, probably, more than anything else, that is 
driving the young men and women and even adult farmers to the 
city. The country school must teach the games that are adapted 
to country life." ^ 

To help supply this need for recreation and culti- 
vate this spirit of play among rural people is one of 
the functions of public exhibitions of play activities. 
Let us see now how such events are usually conducted. 

Local Play Festivals. The local or district play fes- 
tival is an exhibition of playground activities in which 
folk dancing, singing, games, and drills are most prom- 
inent. One of the usual methods of conducting such 
an event is as follows: A program of suitable exer- 
cises is made out and the children practice these until 
they can perform them well. A Friday afternoon is 
selected for the public performance, and invitations 
are sent to all of the patrons to be present. It is a 
good plan wherever possible to publish the program 

^Education through Play, Curtis, page 152. 



Play and the School Playground 159 

in a local newspaper. The event should be widely 
advertised and as much interest as possible created. 
Following is the program exactly as it was given in 
one school : 

SPRING FESTIVAL 

June 2, 1916 

1. Processional — Crowning of the Goddess of Flowers, or the 

May Queen 

2. "Queen of the May-time " Sung by All Grades 

3. Dance of Greeting — "0, A-Hunting We 

Will Go" First Grade 

4. "Pop Goes the Weasel " — Merry-go-round Second Grade 

5. "Oats and Beans" — Mountain March Song, 

" Dancing Song " Third Grade 

6. "Ace of Diamonds" Fourth Grade 

7. "Brownie Polka," "How Do You Do" Fifth Grade 

8. " Morris Dance " Eighth Grade 

9. Song, " May-time" — Ribbon Play Seventh Grade 

10. May-Pole Dance 

These exercises were so popular that the school was 
asked to repeat the program a little later on the oc- 
casion of a public celebration in the community. 

The Tournament. The tournament or athletic field 
meet differs from the festival proper in that the ex- 
ercises consist very largely or wholly of athletic sports 
and competitive games, such as running dashes, jump- 
ing, relay races, baseball, basket ball, volley ball, and 
tennis. 

A local tournament can easily be held, provided there 
are enough pupils to constitute the necessary teams. 
The usual plan, however, is to hold inter-school meets ; 
that is, contests between pupils from several different 
schools. The program for a meet of this sort usually 
consists of contests in : 



160 Rural School Management 



25-yard dash 


Relay race 


Running broad jump 


50-yard dash 


Baseball 


Standing broad jump 


60-yard dash 


Basket ball 


Running high jump 


100-yard dash 


Tennis 


Standing high jump 
Low hurdles 



Field meets of this sort are not often held in rural 
communities except in connection with a county 
Play Day or Play Picnic. However, an occasional 
contest between two neighboring schools in a few of 
the above sports furnishes a wholesome form of recre- 
ation for the community and stimulates play in the 
schools participating. 

Rural School Play Day. A Play Day or Field Day 
and Play Picnic is a combination of the play festival 
and tournament. The program for such an occasion 
includes play activities of all kinds suitable for school 
children of all grades and both sexes. 

Rural School Play Day has become an annual event 
now at a great many of our state normal schools. The 
usual plan is for the normal school authorities to desig- 
nate the day to be observed, prepare a schedule of events 
and exercises, and invite all of the schools within reach 
to participate. The normal school students make 
the necessary preparations and serve as umpires 
and judges in the contests. Sometimes they are per- 
mitted to go out into the schools beforehand and 
assist in teaching the children the games that are 
included in the program. Such play days are almost 
invariably attended by large numbers of pupils and 
their parents. In this way the normal schools are doing 
much to arouse an enthusiasm for play among rural 
people. 

Some county superintendents, too, have instituted 
play days for the rural schools of their counties. In 



Play and the School Playground 161 

some instances the play day activities are held in con- 
nection with a county school fair or a boys' and 
girls' industrial club exhibit. In other instances the 
day is devoted exclusively to plays, games, and ath- 
letic sports. 

A brief description of an actual occurrence of this sort 
will serve to illustrate one method of procedure and 
also to indicate how successful such an event may be 
made. 

The county superintendent designated a certain 
day to be observed as County Play Day and named a 
certain centrally located town as the place where the 
event would be held. A program of exercises was 
prepared for the occasion. Printed copies of these 
programs were sent to all of the teachers with a press- 
ing invitation to prepare their pupils to take part in 
the exercises. The affair was widely advertised in 
all of the newspapers in the county and parents were 
urged to come and bring their children. The fore- 
noon was spent in getting acquainted and in social 
intercourse. The lunches which the parents had been 
asked to bring were served at noon as a picnic dinner. 
At one o'clock a parade, nearly a mile long and headed 
by a local band, was held, in which nearly every school 
in the county was represented. After the parade 
came the play activities and sports. There were May- 
pole and folk dances by primary, intermediate, and 
grammar grades; drills of various sorts by pupils from 
different schools; running dashes and relay races ap- 
propriate for pupils of different ages; jumping con- 
tests for boys ; and baseball and volley ball contests 
between different schools. 

In a lengthy report of the occasion a local newspaper 
made the following comment : 




162 



Play and the School Playground 163 

"Featured by a mammoth parade, dances, and all popular 
sports, the program given Monday in observance of County 
Play Day was the most successful event ever held in this part 
of the state and was attended by more than four thousand people." 

It was a gala day for men, women, and children. 
Play Day will probably become an annual event in 
that county, for the people have caught the play 
spirit and have had a taste of the pleasure that it 
affords. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Betts and Hall : Better Rural Schools, Chapter XXVII. 
Curtis : Plaij and Recreation for the Open Country, Chapters IV- 

XIV. 
Curtis : The Practical Conduct of Play, Chapters I, III, V, VIII, 

XV. 

Dewey : Schools of Tomorrow, Chapter V. 
Dresslar : School Hygiene, Chapter II. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. What, in your opinion, are the most serious hindrances to 
the wider use of play in your community? 

2. How would you meet the argument that country children 
do not need to play? 

3. Explain just how you would proceed to get your school 
board or patrons to provide a larger playground or better play 
facilities at the school. 

4. Make actual observations in connection with your own or 
some near-by school to determine : 

(a) The size of the playground. 

(b) Number of pupils using it. 

(c) The times at which it is used. 

(d) The equipment for games and athletics, and play apparatus. 

(e) Principal games and activities engaged in by pupils of 
different ages. 

5. If the conditions disclosed by the study suggested in Exer- 
cise 4 are not satisfactory, show how they could be improved. 

6. For what purposes, other than the playing of children at 



164 Rural School Management 

school, is your school ground used? For what other purposes do 
you think it could be used ? 

7. Make a list of all the material needed to equip a school 
playground properly. Indicate on the list the things that could 
be provided without expense. From the catalogues of athletic 
or school supply houses estinjate the cost of the equipment that 
would have to be purchased. 

8. What means would you use to get the people of your com- 
munity to attend a play festival at the school? 

9. Prepare an argument for the wider use of play in your 
community, grouping your points under the following headings: 

(a) How play and the playground may aid the school in the 
training of children. 

(h) How the playground may contribute to the enjoyment of 
life in general in the community. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE DAILY PROGRAM AND ALTERNATION 

I. FUNCTIONS OF THE DAILY PROGRAM 

To Distribute the Pupils' Time. The present scheme 
of grading schools requires a pupil to study several 
different subjects during the course of the school day. 
A pupil in the fifth grade, for instance, is required to 
study reading, arithmetic, geography, language, writ- 
ing, etc. Each of these subjects is placed in the course 
of study because it is believed to constitute a neces- 
sary part of the child's education. One of the func- 
tions of the daily program is to distribute the pupil's 
time and energy among the various subjects he is 
expected to study. It serves to prevent him from 
studying one or two subjects to the neglect of all the 
others. 

The program not only fixes approximately the 
amount of time to be given to the various subjects, but 
it sets the period for each at the time of day which is 
thought to be best suited to that particular kind of 
work. Those subjects which make the heaviest de- 
mands on the mental energies of the pupils of a given 
grade are placed at the time of day when the children 
are most vigorous. On the other hand, those subjects 
which require more physical activity and less mental 
effort are placed late in the day when the pupils are 
more or less fatigued from the day's work. 

165 



166 Rural School Management 

Again, a good program provides periods for study 
or seat work between recitations. Where there are 
several grades in the school, pupils usually spend not 
more than a fourth or a third of their time in recita- 
tions. What they do between these recitations is 
very important. A well-arranged program divides 
the pupils' time between study and recitation in such 
a way that the children may have an opportunity to 
prepare their lessons. For the smaller children who 
cannot study assigned lessons in books, some form 
of profitable seat work is provided. 

To Distribute the Teacher's Time. Another func- 
tion of the daily program is to distribute the teacher's 
time among the various classes. It serves to prevent 
the teacher from spending so much time with one or 
two classes that all the others are deprived of the 
amount of time they are entitled to receive. In a 
school where there are several grades of pupils, the 
teacher may be inclined to devote most of his time to 
the advanced classes. Where this happens, the pri- 
mary pupils — those in greatest need of the teacher's 
help — make little progress because of the lack of 
sufficient attention on the part of the teacher. 

Again, it sometimes happens that teachers use too 
much time in teaching their favorite subjects. As 
an instance, a teacher who was very fond of gram- 
mar spent a full hour in conducting a grammar recita- 
tion. As a result, some of the other classes had to be 
omitted for that day. A good program, then, if it is 
reasonably well followed, serves to give to each grade 
and to each class in the school the proportion of the 
teacher's time it ought to receive. 

An Aid to Discipline. A program arranged with a 
view to accomplishing the two purposes already named 



The Daily Program and Alternation 167 

incidentally aids the teacher in maintaining order in 
the school. A great deal of the disorder in school 
results from the idleness of pupils during their study 
periods. When pupils have definitely assigned work 
for each study period to keep them profitably employed 
and interested, they are not likely to get into mischief. 

Summary. The main functions of the daily program are: 
(1) to enable the pupils to make the best use of their time by 
(a) fixing the amount of time to be devoted to each subject; 
(6) locating the periods for each subject at the time most favor- 
able for the kind of work to be done ; and (c) providing suitable 
work for the study periods. (2) To distribute the teacher's time 
fairly between (a) the different grades and (&) the different sub- 
jects to be taught. (3) Incidentally the program serves to pro- 
mote good order in the school. 

n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

Large Number of Classes. The usual method of 
classifying pupils into eight grades gives rise to serious 
difficulties in rural schools. In the first place it makes 
the number of classes too large for one teacher to handle 
properly. If a separate class is formed for each subject 
in each of the eight grades, there will be from thirty- 
five to forty classes, or even more in some cases. Since 
it is extremely important that the teacher have time 
to make preparation for teaching each class, some 
method of reducing the number of classes must be 
found. No teacher can make adequate preparation 
for teaching thirty-five or forty different classes daily. 

Short Recitation Periods. Another difficulty which 
grows out of the usual method of grading rural schools 
is the fact that the recitation periods are necessarily 
too short to be of much value to pupils. Allowing six 
hours for the length of the school day with thirty min- 



168 Rural School Management 

utes deducted for intermissions, there are only three 
hundred and thirty minutes for actual class time. 
In a school where there are thirty-five or forty classes 
the average length of the recitation periods is less than 
ten minutes. If the period for some of the classes is 
made longer, the time for the others must be cor- 
respondingly shorter. This means that some of the 
recitation periods could not be more than five minutes 
in length — a period entirely too short to do justice 
to any class. Here, then, is another necessity for 
finding some method of reducing the number of classes. 
Small Classes. When separate classes are main- 
tained for each grade it sometimes happens that there 
are only one or two pupils in a class. A class of this 
size is too small to arouse much interest in the work. 
As a rule, neither the pupil nor the teacher is stimulated 
to put forth as much effort as is the case when the 
classes are fairly large. Furthermore, the larger classes 
afford a better opportunity for cooperation among 
pupils — a matter which is being strongly empha- 
sized in the best schools at present. It seems very de- 
sirable, therefore, to find some way, if possible, of 
eliminating the classes which are too small to arouse 
both teacher and pupils to do their best work. 

Summary. The chief difficulties encountered in trying to 
make a satisfactory program for a school having eight grades are : 
(1) the large number of classes; (2) the necessarily short recita- 
tion periods; and (3) in some instances, the small number of 
pupils in a class. 

m. HOW TO ARRANGE THE DAILY PROGRAM 

To insure to each subject in the course of study and 
to each class a proportionate share of time on the part 
of both pupils and teacher a daily program is needed. 



The Daily Program and Alternation 169 

But in a school having eight grades a program which 
provides a separate class in each subject in each grade 
is wholly unsatisfactory. Our problem here, then, is 
to see how a program may be arranged that will re- 
duce the number of recitations per day, make longer 
periods possible, and increase the size of the classes. 

Two methods of accomplishing this end are in fairly 
common use : (1) forming classes without reference 
to grade lines in the school, and (2) alternation of 
grades and subjects. 

Classes without Reference to Grades. This method 
consists in forming a series of classes in each subject 
and permitting pupils to recite in the class best suited 
to their capacities. It is claimed, for instance, that 
in a school of eight grades there need not be more than 
five classes in reading, four in arithmetic, three in 
language, etc. The following scheme will show how 
a school may be organized on this plan. 

Reading. Form five classes — beginners, D, C, B, and A. 
Give beginners three daily periods, classes D and C two each, 
and classes B and A one each. Let each pupil recite in the class 
best suited to his ability. 

Arithmetic. Form four classes — D, C, B, and A. Give 
beginners some number work at a reading period during latter 
part of year. Distribute all other pupils among the four classes 
according to their ability to do the work. Daily recitations in 
classes D and C ; four periods per week in classes B and A. 

Language and Grammar. Form three classes — C, B, and A. 
Give beginners and second year pupils language work with read- 
ing. Three periods per week in each of the three classes. 

Spelling. Form two classes — B and A. Two periods per 
week each. Beginners and lower grade pupils spell in connection 
with reading. 

Geography. Form two classes — B and A. Daily recitations. 
Beginners and immature pupils do not Study this subject. 

History and Civics. Form one class for advanced pupils. 



170 Rural School Management 

Give all other pupils history stories as supplementary work in 
geography and reading. 

Writing. Whole school, two periods per week. 

Music. Singing by entire school, two periods per week; also 
at opening exercises, close of school, etc. 

Drawing. In connection with other subjects. 

Agriculture, Manual Training, Domestic Science. Friday 
afternoon after recess in place of other classes held at that time 
on other days. * 

A plan of this sort undoubtedly has some com- 
mendable features. It reduces the number of classes, 
thereby giving longer periods for recitations and 
diminishing the amount of daily preparation on the 
part of the teacher. Another advantage claimed for 
it is that it attaches little or no importance to the 
strict grading of the school. There is serious doubt 
now as to the wisdom of trying to copy a city system of 
grading in a rural school. Some educators hold that 
it is better to let each pupil recite in those classes 
from which he can get the greatest amount of good. 

It is questionable whether the above scheme can be 
made to meet the demands of present-day education 
without unduly multiplying the number of classes. 
Nature study, handwork, and plays and games are 
believed to be as important in the training of pri- 
mary pupils as are reading, numbers, and language. 
Hence the program should make some definite pro- 
vision for these subjects. It is thought, also, that 
such subjects as agriculture, domestic science, manual 
training, and rural sociology should have a more 
prominent place in a rural school program than is 
accorded them in the plan just described. 

Alternation by Grades. " By the alternation of grades 
we mean the combining of the pupils of two grades 
into a single class. This class does the work out- 



The Daily Program and Alternation 171 

lined in the course of study for one of the grades one 
year and that for the other grade the next year. To 
illustrate, suppose we combine the fifth and the sixth 
grades in geography. During the first year the two 
grades recite together in the work laid down in the 
course for, let us say, the fifth grade. The next year 
they take the work prescribed for the sixth grade. 
The following tables will help to make clear this method 
of organizing the entire school. 



TABLE I. OUTLINE OF 
First Grade 

1. Reading (5) 

2. Reading, phonics, word drills 

(5) 

3. General Lessons : 

Study, Hygiene 
Studies (5) 

4. Handwork, Games 

(5) 



Nature 
Social 

Stories 



Third Grade 



1. Arithmetic (5) 

2. Reading (5) 

3. Language and Spelling (3) ; 

History and Social Studies 
(2) 

4. Nature Study, Hygiene, 

Handwork (5) 

Fifth Grade 

1. Reading (5) 

2. Arithmetic (4) ; Manual 

Training and Sewing (1) 

3. Geography (4) ; Agricultural 

Nature Study (1) 

4. Language and Spelling (3) ; 

History (2) 



SUBJECTS BY GRADES 
Second Grade 

1. Reading (5) 

2. Reading (3), Numbers (2) 

3. General Lessons: Nature 

Study, Hygiene, Social 
Studies (5) 

4. Handwork, Games, Stories 

(5) 

Fourth Grade 

1. Arithmetic (5) 

2. Reading (5) 

3. Language and Spelling (3) ; 

History and Social Studies 
(2) 

4. Oral Geography, Hygiene, 

Handwork (5) -^ 

Sixth Grade 

1. Reading (5) 

2. Arithmetic (4) ; Manual 

Training and Sewing (1) 

3. Geography (4) ; Agricultural 

Nature Study (1) 

4. Language and Spelling (3) ; 

History (2) 



172 Rural School Management 

Seventh Grade Eighth Grade 

1. Literature (5) 1. Literature (5) 

2. Arithmetic (3) ; Grammar 2. Arithmetic (3) ; Grammar 

(2) (2) 

3. Geography (5) 3. Physiology (5) 

4. History (5) 4. Civics and Rural Sociology (5) 

5. Agriculture (3) ; Manual 5. Agriculture (3) ; Manual 

Training for boys and Do- Training for boys and Do- 

mestic Science for girls (2) mestic Science for girls (2) 

Table I contains a list of the subjects to be taught 
in each grade. The figures in parenthesis denote the 
number of recitations per week. In addition to the 
subjects named, all classes have work in music, writing, 
and drawing. It will be noted that if separate classes 
were formed for each grade, there would be at least 
thirty-five daily recitations, counting one period for 
the three subjects, music, drawing, and writing. 

The plan of alternation under consideration here 
groups all of the pupils into four classes — D, C, B, 
and A. Class D is composed, in the main, of first 
and second year pupils ; class C, of third and fourth 
year pupils, etc. The two grades in each class recite 
together in all of the subjects in which they can work 
together with profit. Tables II and III indicate the 
subjects in which the two grades in each class may be 
combined. 

TABLE n. CLASSES FORMED IN ODD-NUMBERED 

YEARS 

Class D 

(First and second year pupils) 







First Grade 




Second Grade 




1. 


Readi 


ng (5) 


1. 


Reading (5) 




2. 


Reading, phonics, word drills 


2 


Reading (3) ; Numbers 


(2) 




(5) 






(Recite with first grade 
all other subjects) 


' in 



The Daily Program and Alternation 173 



3. General Lessons; Nature 

Study, Hygiene, Social 
Studies (5)' 

4. Handwork, Stories, Games 

(5) 



Class C 
(Third and fourth year pupils) 



Third Grade 

1. Arithmetic (5) 

2. Reading (5) 

3. Language and Spelling (3) ; 

History and Social Studies 
(2) 

4. Nature Study, Hygiene, 

Handwork (5) 



Fourth Grade 
1. Arithmetic (5) 

(Recite with third grade 
in all other subjects) 



Class B 
(Fifth and sixth year pupils) 



Fifth Grade 

1. Reading (5) 

2. Arithmetic (4) ; Manual 

Training and Sewing (1) 

3. Geography (4) ; Agricultural 

Nature Study (1) 

4. Language and Spelling (3) ; 

History (2) 



Sixth Grade 

(Recite with fifth grade in all 
subjects) 



Class A 
(Seventh and eighth year pupils) 



Seventh Grade 

1. Literature (5) 

2. Arithmetic (3) ; Grammar 

(2) 

3. Geography (5) 

4. History (5) 

5. Agriculture (3) ; Manual 

Training for boys and Do- 
mestic Science for girls (2) 



Eighth Grade 

(Recite with seventh grade in 
all subjects) 



174 



Rural School Management 



TABLE III. CLASSES FORMED IN EVEN-NUMBERED 

YEARS 



Class D 

(First and second year pupils) 

First Grade Second Grade 



1. 


Reading (5) 1. Reading (5) 


2. 


Reading, phonics, word drills 2. Reading (3) ; Numbers (2) 




(5) 3. General Lessons; Nature 




(Recite with second grade in Study, Hygiene, Social 




all other subjects) Studies (5) 




4. Handwork, Stories, Games 




(5) 




Class C 




(Third and fourth year pupils) 




Third Grade Fourth Grade 


1. 


Arithmetic (5) 1. Arithmetic (5) 




(Recite with fourth grade in 2. Reading (5) 




all other subjects) 3. Language and Spelling (3) ; 




History and Social Studies 




(2) 




4. Oral Geography, Hygiene, 




Handwork (5) 




Class B 




(Fifth and sixth year pupils) 




Fifth Grade Sixth Grade 



(Recite with sixth grade in all 
subjects) 



1. Reading (5) 

2. Arithmetic (4) ; Manual 

Training and Sewing (1) 

3. Geography (4) ; Agricultural 

Nature Study (1) 

4. Language and Spelling (3); 

History (2) 



The Daily Program and Alternation 175 

Class A 

(Seventh and eighth year pupils) 

Seventh Grade Eighth Grade 

1. Literature (5) 
(Recite with eighth grade in all 2. Arithmetic (3) ; Grammar 
subjects) (2) 

3. Physiology (5) 

4. Civics and Rural Sociology 

(5) 

5. Agriculture (3) ; Manual 

Training for boys and 
Domestic Science for girls 
(2) 

From the above tables it is seen that in odd-numbered 
years classes are formed in the subjects in the odd-num- 
bered grades, while the subjects in the even-numbered 
grades, except two in the second and one in the fourth, 
are omitted. In even-numbered years the subjects in 
the even-numbered grades are taught, while those in 
the odd-numbered grades, with the exception of reading 
in the first and arithmetic in the third, are omitted. 
Counting one period daily for the three subjects, music, 
writing, and drawing, the total number of recitations, 
in either case, is twenty-one. 

The results of this method of alternating grades are 
that the number of classes is greatly reduced, the 
amount of work for the teacher to prepare correspond- 
ingly diminished, the recitation periods lengthened, 
and the size of the classes increased. Furthermore, a 
pupil may be classified in any subject according to 
his ability to do the work. If a pupil in class C, for 
instance, is found to be capable of doing more advanced 
work in reading or arithmetic, he can be assigned to a 
more advanced class in that subject. 



176 Rural School Management 

Alternation by Subjects. Another feature of the 
plan of organization here presented is the fact that in 
some of the subjects the number of recitations is less 
than five per week. In class A, for instance, arith- 
metic has three and grammar two recitations per 
week. Similar alternations are found in nearly all 
of the classes. Where fewer than five recitations are 
indicated it means that the subject first mentioned 
has a certain number of periods, while the recitations 
in the second subject come at the same time on the 
remaining days in the week. The numbers are used 
to denote the relative amount of time each subject 
should receive. The alternating may be done by 
days, by weeks, or in any other manner so long as 
the plan makes careful provision to divide the time 
between the two subjects approximately in the ratio 
indicated. 

The reasons for some such method of alternating 
subjects are three: (1) There is at present a strong 
demand that the rural school shall give its pupils some 
training in nature study, agriculture, domestic science, 
and manual training. In order to get time for these 
newer lines of work we must give less time to some of 
the older subjects. (2) It is believed, too, that we 
have been teaching a great many things in connection 
with some of the older subjects, especially in arithme- 
tic, grammar, history, and geography, that are not of 
sufficient value to pupils to justify the amount of time 
we have been giving them. Hence, by omitting these 
unimportant matters fewer periods are needed to give 
pupils the necessary training in these subjects. (3) 
We have learned, also, that some subjects, such as 
formal language, spelling, writing, and drawing, can 
be taught effectively by being correlated ; that is, by 



The Daily Program and Alternation 177 

being taught in connection with the other studies. 
Fewer recitation periods may, therefore, be devoted 
to these subjects without depriving the pupils of 
the training which they ought to receive along these 
lines. 

The alternation of subjects is therefore one method 
of providing time for the newer lines of work. It does 
this by giving fewer periods to some of the older studies. 
These fewer periods will afford ample time for the 
branches affected, provided: (1) that all topics which 
are of little or no value to pupils are omitted entirely, 
and (2) that certain other subjects which admit of this 
treatment are correlated with the other work of the 
school, thus giving them really more instead of less 
attention. 

The Daily Program. There are two factors which 
determine what the daily program for any given school 
shall contain. These are (1) the number of grades in 
the school, and (2) the subjects required by the adopted 
course of study. 

These factors vary with different schools. In some 
schools there are eight grades, in others only seven, 
while in still others there are but five or six. Again, 
the courses of study in use in different states or in- 
dividual schools vary somewhat in the subjects to 
be taught. Hence, it is impossible to give here a 
program that will meet exactly the conditions found 
in all schools. However, the following sample pro- 
grams are submitted for the helpful suggestions they 
may offer. 

In the state of New Jersey the program which is rec- 
ommended by the Department of Public Instruction for 
use in schools having one teacher and eight grades is 
as follows : 



178 



Rural School Management 



Begin 


Time 


Recitation Program 


9 


00 


10 


Opening Exercises — Singing 


9 


12 


20 


Class A — History or Civics (4) — Reading on 
Monday- 


9 


34 


15 


Class B — Geography (4) — Reading on Tues- 
day 


9 


51 


10 


Beginners — Reading and Oral Language (5) 


10 


03 


10 


Class D — Reading and Spelling (5) 


10 


15 


10 


Class C — Reading and Spelling (5) 


10 


27 


15 


Recess 


10 


45 


10 


Beginners — Reading and Number (5) 


10 


57 


20 


Class A — Arithmetic (4) — Spare Period (1) 


11 


19 


15 


Class B — Arithmetic (4) — Spare Period (1) 


11 


36 


10 


Class C — Arithmetic (5) 


11 


47 


10 


Class D — Arithmetic (5) 


12 


00 




Dismissal 

Noon 


1 


00 


5 


Open School 


1 


05 


20 


Class A — Composition (2) — Grammar (1) 
Class B — Composition (2) 


1 


30 


10 


Beginners — Reading and Writing (5) 


1 


42 


10 


Class C — Reading (5) 


1 


54 


10 


Class D — Reading (5) 


2 


04 


15 


Class B — Technical English (1) 
Class C — Geography (4) 


2 


20 


15 


Recess 


2 


35 


20 


Class A — Reading (2) 
Class B — Reading (2) 




2 


57 


20 


All Classes — Penmanship (2) — 




3 


20 


15 


Written Spelling — Word Study 
(2) 
Class A — Oral Spelling — Word 

Study (2) 


Agriculture 

and 

Household 

Arts, 

Friday 








Class B — Oral Spelling — Word 
Study (2) 


3 


37 


20 


Class C — Language (3) 
All Classes — Hygiene (1) 




4 


00 




Singing and Dismissal 





The Daily Program and Alternation 179 

An excellent feature of this program is the fact that 
it provides free or " spare " periods for the teacher. 
These periods can be used in giving individual help to 
pupils or classes that are in need of special attention. 
It seems, however, that the primary pupils should re- 
ceive a larger share of the teacher's time than the 
program allots to them. Furthermore, there appears 
to be no provision for nature study, handwork, story- 
telling, and games — lines of work that are now deemed 
to be very important in the development and training 
of children. 

Several of the states have adopted a plan of alter- 
nating grades very similar to the one we have just pre- 
sented. In Missouri the state course of study con- 
tains the following suggested program of recitations 
for use in one-teacher schools : 



Begin 


Time 


Recitation Program 


8:50 


10 


Opening Exercises and Music. All grades. 


9:00 


20 


A Arithmetic 


9:20 


10 


D Reading, Grade 1 


9:30 


10 


D Reading, Grade 2 


9:40 


15 


C Reading 


9:55 


15 


B Reading 


10:10 


20 


A Grammar 


10:30 


10 


Recess 


10:40 


10 


D Reading, Grade 1 


10:50 


10 


D Reading and Spelling, Grade 2 


11:00 


12 


C Arithmetic, Grade 3 


11:12 


13 


C Arithmetic, Grade 4 


11:25 


15 


B Arithmetic 


11 : 40 


20 


A History and Government 

Noon 



180 



Rural School Management 



Begin 


Time 


Recitation Program 


1:00 


5 


Music. All Grades 


1:05 


15 


C Geography and Nature Study 


1:20 


15 


D Reading, Number, and Nature Study 


1:35 


15 


A Agriculture or Physiology 


1:50 


20 


Writing or Drawing. All Grades 


2:10 


15 


B Geography and History 


2:25 


10 


Recess 


2:35 


15 


C Reading, Language, and Spelling 


2:50 


15 


A Geography 


3:05 


10 


B Nature Study or Physiology 


3:15 


10 


D Story Hour, Grade 1 


3:25 


10 


D Story Hour, Grade 2 


3:35 


20 


A Reading and Spelling 


3:55 


15 


B Language and Spelling 



Two or three features of this program deserve special 
notice. It will be observed that the total number of 
recitations, exclusive of opening exercises and music, 
is twenty-four; that seven of these and the recess 
periods are only ten minutes in length; and that 
the period for agriculture is only fifteen minutes long. 
There are at least three ways in which the program 
may be improved in these respects : (1) By giving less 
time to arithmetic and grammar and, perhaps, to 
geography. Most educators hold that the importance 
of these subjects in everyday life does not justify our 
giving so much time to them. (2) By correlating 
language, spelling, writing, and drawing with the 
other studies. In this way more effective woi^k can 
be done in these subjects with fewer recitation periods 
than we usually give them. (3) By combining grades 
one and two in the story-hour period for the work ia 
stories, handwork, and games. 



The Daily Program and Alternation 181 

Let us see, now, how these improvements may be em- 
bodied in the program. The following schedule of classes 
is based on the plan of alternation previously described 
in this chapter. The program for odd-numbered years 
includes the subjects listed in Table II, page 172. 

PROGRAM FOR ODD-NUMBERED YEARS 



Begin 


Time 


Recitation Program 


8:50 


10 


Opening Exercises 


9:00 


20 


A Literature (5) 


9:20 


15 


D Reading, Grade 1 (5) 


9:35 


15 


D Reading, Grade 2 (5) 


9:50 


15 


C Reading (5) 


10:05 


15 


B Reading (5) 


10:20 


15 


Recess 


10:35 


20 


A Arithmetic (3) ; Grammar (2) 


10:55 


10 


D Reading, phonics (5), Grade 1 


11:05 


10 


D Reading (3) ; Number (2), Grade 2 


11 : 15 


12 


C Arithmetic (5), Grade 3 


11:27 


13 


C Arithmetic (5), Grade 4 


11:40 


20 


B Arithmetic (4) ; Manual Training (1) 


12:00 


60 


Noon 


1:00 


20 


A History (5) 


1:20 


15 


D General Lessons (5) 


1:35 


15 


C Language and Spelling (3) ; History and 
Social Studies (2) 


1:50 


15 


B Language and Spelling (3) ; History (2) 


2:05 


15 


Music (2) ; Writing (2) ; Drawing (1) 


2:20 


15 


A Geography (5) 


2:35 


15 


Recess 


2:50 


15 


D Handwork, Stories, Games (5) 


3:05 


15 


C Nature Study, Hygiene, Handwork (5) 


3:20 


15 


B Geography (4) ; Agricultural Nature Study 

(1) 


3:35 


25 


A Agriculture (3); Manual Training and 
Domestic Science (2) 



182 Rural School Management 

Program for Even-numbered Years. The program 
for even-numbered years should contain the subjects 
enumerated in Table III on page 174. It will be 
noted that the subjects in this table differ from those 
in Table II in only three instances — oral geography, 
physiology, civics and rural sociology taking the 
places, respectively, of nature study in class C, geogra- 
phy in class A, and history in class A. To make the 
program for even-numbered years, then, all that is 
necessary is to make the following substitutions in 
the program for odd-numbered years: 

(1) Civics and rural sociology for history at 1 : 00. 

(2) Physiology for geography at 2 : 20. 

(3) Oral geography for nature study at 3 : 05. 

Comments on the Program. The general lessons 
period in class D is intended to cover the work in na- 
ture study, hygiene, and social studies as outlined in 
the course of study. Nature study should receive 
the greater share of the time here, especially during 
the seasons of the year when it is easy to get material 
for this work. During the midwinter season the time 
may be devoted more largely to the other lines of work. 
The work in nature study should not be dropped alto- 
gether, however, as there are some topics which may 
be studied with profit at this time of year. 

Spelling is placed in the same recitation period with 
language. This is done for two reasons : (1) Spelling, 
like capitalizing and punctuating, is primarily a phase 
of language teaching. (2) It is assumed that spelling 
will be correlated with all of the other subjects. Since 
pupils must spell in the preparation of all their written 
work, every written exercise is a spelling exercise. It 
is expected, however, that the teacher will use all or 



The Daily Program and Alternation 183 

a part of the language period occasionally as a separate 
spelling period. 

Only one period a day is devoted to the three subjects, 
music, writing, and drawing. More time can and 
should be provided for music by using the opening ex- 
ercise period for that purpose on certain days in the 
week. The drawings and written work required in 
other subjects constitute the best practice exercises 
for pupils in drawing and writing. With a period or 
two a week for special instruction and help, and with 
constant attention to the writing and drawing pupils 
do in other subjects, fairly satisfactory results can be 
accompHshed. 

The program assumes that both boys and girls in 
class A will take the work in agriculture, the class re- 
citing three times per week. On the other two days 
the girls will have domestic science and the boys manual 
training. The nature of the work in these two sub- 
jects makes it possible for the teacher to conduct both 
classes at the same time. 

The Study Periods. Care should be taken to pro- 
vide profitable employment for each class during study 
periods. For the primary pupils this employment 
should consist largely of play and different forms of 
handwork. The play periods should be spent, as far 
as possible, out of doors. Added value can be given 
to these periods if it can be arranged for the larger 
pupils to take turns in teaching the children new games, 
and in otherwise assisting them in their play. 

In most of the subjects pupils should be encouraged 
to study the advanced lesson just after the recitation 
and again just before the next recitation in that sub- 
ject. The study period just after the recitation comes 
at a time when the pupil's interest in the subject is 



184 Rural School Management 

keen and the assignment fresh in mind. The period 
just before the recitation gives an opportunity for 
review, thereby fixing the lesson more firmly in the 
mind of the pupil. 

The study periods in agriculture, manual training, 
and domestic science should be spent in performing 
experiments, making observations, or working on 
projects which were explained or started in the pre- 
vious recitation. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Bagley : Classroom Management, Chapter IV. 

COLGROVE : The Teacher and the School, Chapter XII. 

Salisbury : School Management, Chapter X. 

3tate Department of Education, Missouri : State Course of Study, 

pages 3-9. 
State Department of Education, New Jersey: The Making of 

School Programs. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. State clearly all of the reasons you can think of why a school 
should have a definite daily program of recitations. 

2. Compare the program given on page 179 with the one on 
page 181 as to total amount of time given to (1) primary pupils ; 
(2) advanced pupils. Which do you regard as the better? Why? 

3. Point out any objections you can think of to the plan of 
alternating grades and subjects given on pages 173-177. 

4. Do you consider the alternation of grades necessary in a 
school having only five or six grades? Why? 

5. Construct a daily program for a school having eight grades 
and two teachers. 

6. In connection with the "study" program, state the argu- 
ments for and against the practice of requiring all of the pupils 
of the same class to prepare the same lesson during the same 
study periods. 



CHAPTER IX 
THE COURSE OF STUDY 

I. FUNCTIONS OF A COURSE OF STUDY 

We learned in Chapter I that the special function 
of the school is to give children such training as will 
make them efficient members of society. In seeking 
to accomplish this end the teacher uses, as his chief 
means, a course of study which contains the subjects 
or material thought to be necessary to give the sort 
of training needed. The course of study, then, is a 
means of helping children to become better men and 
women than they could otherwise become. It does 
this in two ways. 

Psychological Needs. In the first place, the course 
of study supplies the material needed to enrich the 
lives and unfold the physical and mental powers of 
the pupils. This is important for the reason that 
proper growth and deyelopment during childhood is 
necessary before children can become the kind of men 
and women we wish them to be. The course of study, 
therefore, must make provision for the things children 
must do and learn in order to enjoy life and develop 
as they should. There are certain things which are 
necessary to the natural, healthy growth and devel- 
opment of children, and the course of study is to help 
them do these things better than they could do them 
if there were no school. To this end the course of study, 

185 



186 Rural School Management 

especially for the lower grades, should provide abun- 
dant opportunity for children to play, to work with 
their hands, to observe the things around them, to hear 
good stories, and to tell each other about things they 
are interested in. Plays and games, handwork, na- 
ture study, the activities of people, stories from history 
and children's literature, language, reading, writing, 
drawing, and numbers — all of these are demanded 
as means of helping the children do the things which 
are both enjoyable to them and necessary to their 
natural development. 

Social Needs. The second function of the course 
of study may well be called its social or sociological 
function. It pertains to the qualities or training 
which one needs to make him the best possible type of 
citizen. To be such a citizen one must be able to read, 
write, and make the arithmetical computations that 
arise in everyday business affairs; he must be physi- 
cally sound and know how to preserve his own health 
and that of his neighbors; he must be able to earn 
his own living; he ought to be familiar with the af- 
fairs of government in his community, in the state, 
and, to some extent, in the nation ; he ought to know 
something about the social conditions which prevail 
in his community and be willing to help make, or keep, 
them what they ought to be ; and, finally, he ought to 
be able to find enjoyment for his leisure hours in good 
literature, music, and art. To give to the pupil, as far 
as it can be done in an elementary school, the training 
that will develop these qualities is the social function 
of the course of study. 

Summary. The course of study is the group of subjects which 
the teacher uses as a means of helping children to become better 
men and women. It serves this purpose (1) by providing the 



The Course of Study 187 

material necessary to develop the pupils and satisfy their needs 
in their present activities, and (2) by supplying the subjects best 
suited to give them the sort of training they need to make them 
good citizens. 



n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

Selecting the Subjects. In the earlier schools 
pupils were required to study only a few subjects, such 
as reading, writing, arithmetic, and spelling. When 
this was the case the making of a course of study was 
not particularly difficult because there was plenty of 
time for both teacher and pupils to do all that was re- 
quired of them. But we believe now that the old or 
traditional subjects do not supply all the training 
children need. Consequently, a great many new sub- 
jects have been added to the course, with the result 
that the curriculum has become crowded. It is prac- 
tically impossible to teach all that was formerly taught 
and all of the new subjects besides. Hence, it is neces- 
sary to select some subjects or parts of subjects and 
omit others. 

It is not always easy to decide just what ought to 
be included and what left out of the curriculum. We 
learned in the last section that the functions of the 
course of study are to supply the child's immediate 
needs for development and to train him for the best 
type of citizenship. It may be stated as a general 
rule, then, that the course of study should contain 
those subjects and topics, and only those, which con- 
tribute to one or both of these ends. When we apply 
this rule we find that we can very well omit some of 
the things which have heretofore been taught, par- 
ticularly in arithmetic, grammar, history, and geog- 
raphy. We find, also, that greater emphasis should 



188 Rural School Management 

be placed on some of the other subjects, such as hy- 
giene, literature, music, and the appreciation of art; 
and that some new lines of work such as manual train- 
ing, agriculture, domestic science, and rural sociology, 
should be added to the curriculum. The outline 
which follows in the next section is an attempt to ar- 
range a course of study according to the requirements 
of this rule. 

Other Difficulties. After we have decided what sub- 
jects the course of study should contain, it is still neces- 
sary to determine (1) just where in the course, that 
is, in what grade, each subject should be placed, and 
(2) how long the study of each should continue, and 
how much time should be given to it. On both of these 
points practice differs somewhat. The plan of alter- 
nation discussed in the preceding chapter is one of 
the ways in which these difficulties may be satisfac- 
torily met. 

Summary. The most difficult problems which arise in making 
a course of study are: (1) what subjects to include and what 
subjects or parts of subjects to omit from the course; (2) where 
in the course to place the subjects selected; and (3) how to appor- 
tion the time among the various subjects. 

m. SUGGESTED OUTLINE FOR A COURSE OF STUDY 

In Section I we learned what purposes or functions 
the course of study ought to serve. We learned there 
that the material selected should be such as is really 
necessary (1) to satisfy the interests and supply the 
needs of growing, developing boys and girls, and 
(2) to equip them for the duties of efficient citizenship. 
In this section our problem is to try to arrange a course 
of study that will accomplish this twofold end. The 
outline which follows is intended to be merely a very 



The Course of Study 189 

brief statement of the main lines of work that should 
be carried on in a rural school. Hence, few or no sug- 
gestions are offered as to methods of teaching the 
subjects named. 

CLASS D 

(First and Second Grades) 
Reading 

From the standpoint of the teacher the work in read- 
ing has two main purposes or aims : (1) to give pupils 
the ability to get the thought with ease from a printed 
page, and (2) to arouse and cultivate in them an in- 
terest in good literary material. Both of these aims 
should receive constant consideration throughout the 
course. But from the very nature of the case, the first 
demands the greater emphasis in the lower grades and un- 
til the mechanics of the subject are fairly well mastered. 
To this end there should be word drills, enough of 
phonics to enable pupils to pronounce new words with- 
out the aid of the teacher, and abundant practice in 
actual reading under the stimulus of a strong interest. 

From the standpoint of the pupil a reading lesson 
should be an exercise in getting and expressing thought. 
Word drills, phonics, and practice in reading are 
necessary means to this end. Since getting the thought 
is the thing of chief importance, it follows that the 
material selected should be both interesting to, and 
worth while for, children. 

First Grade, 

1. Script : From blackboard, and charts made by the teacher. 
Material based on home and school experiences of children — ■ 
words and sentences growing out of conversations about pets, 
toys, playtMngs, pmes^ etc. 



190 Rural School Management 

2. Print: Reading from books. Material chiefly nursery 
rhymes and classic stories from folk literature. Several books 
should be read during the year. 

3. Phonics: Sounds of consonants; long and short sounds of 
vowels ; practice in blending, such as wh, sh, fl ; building words 
with phonograms, such as an, ing, ed. 

Second Grade. 

1. Reading: Continuation of work of first grade. Material 
selected largely from classic stories for children and choice easy 
poems. Encourage extensive reading. Provide single copies of 
several different kinds of first and second readers. Permit pupils 
to use these at seats and at home. 

2. Phonics: Review work of first grade. Remaining vowel 
sounds. Practice in blending and word building from phonograms. 
Object: Not sounds for their own sake ; but as a means of enabling 
the pupil to pronounce the new words he encounters. 

Numbers 

A child's first knowledge of numbers is acquired in- 
cidentally, that is, in connection with his play or 
other activities where number facts naturally arise. 
The earliest instruction in this subject in school should 
follow, very largely, the same method. Children 
should learn number facts when such knowledge is 
needed to help them do the things they want to do. 
Such a need arises in connection with nearly all of 
the subjects studied in school. 

First Grade. 

No separate period for number work in this grade. Number 
facts taught incidentally in connection with plays and games, 
nature study, handwork, and stories, whenever such facts are 
needed in these lines of work. 

Second Grade. 

Continuation of the incidental teaching of numbers. Two 
periods per week devoted to exercises and drills along the following 
lines : 



The Course of Study 191 

1. Counting and writing numbers to 100. 

2. Learning simple addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 
division facts. 

3. Measuring with pint, quart, gallon ; inch, foot, yard. 

4. Making money transactions involving cent, nickel, dime. 

5. Solving simple problems involving one operation. 



Nature Study 

Children are naturally interested in and want to 
find out about the things they see all around them. 
This natural tendency is the basis or starting point 
for the work in nature study. Children's interest in 
nature should be cultivated and directed in the ways 
that are most ^helpful to them. Some of the specific 
aims in the teaching of this subject are: (1) to give 
children a love for the things in nature that are the 
friends and helpers of man; (2) to give them an ap- 
preciation of the beauties of nature as revealed in 
fiowers, leaves, landscapes, the color and songs of 
birds, etc. ; (3) to give them some insight into the 
order and system and mutual dependence and help- 
fulness that exist in the world of nature ; (4) to arouse 
a spirit of inquiry and investigation, a desire to know 
more about their natural surroundings; and (5) to 
impart information that has a practical value. 

In the following outline the topics are arranged in 
regular order. In teaching the subject, however, it 
is not necessary to follow this order. Each topic should 
be studied at the time when the material for it is 
most easily obtained, or when there is some special 
reason why the children are more deeply interested in it. 

First Grade, (Alternate with second grade.) 
1. Trees: 
o. Recognition of common varieties. 



192 Rural School Management 

b. Uses — shade, fruit, fuel, lumber, etc. 

c. Two or three kinds studied as to size, branching, leaves, bark. 

2. Cultivated plants : 

a. Recognition of a few varieties grown on farm and in garden. 

b. Uses — food for people, food for animals, clothing, etc. 

c. Germination of seeds and growth of plants in window 

boxes or sand table. 

d. Parts of a plant and their functions. 

3. Flowers : 

a. Recognition of a few common wild flowers. 

b. Time of appearing, length of life, etc. 

4. Domestic animals : Horse, cow, dog — uses, food, care of, etc. 

5. Birds: 

a. Recognition of birds of the locality. 

6. Two or three common birds studied as to food, nesting, 
song, how we should treat them and why. 

c. The kinds and number present in fall, iij winter, in spring. 

6. Weather: 

a. Weather chart for one month in each season. 

b. Rain, frost, snow — value, and harmful effects. 

c. Wind — value and harmful effects. 

Second Grade. (Alternate with first grade.) 

1. Trees : Studied as suggested for first grade, using different 

varieties. 

2. Cultivated plants : Work similar to that suggested for 
first grade, selecting different varieties for study. 

3. Weeds : Recognition of the more common varieties found 

on the farm and in the garden. 

4. Flowers: Recognition of varieties not included in first 

year's work. 

5. Domestic animals : Chickens, turkeys, ducks — their uses 

to man, their food, care they should have, etc. 

6. Birds : Studied as suggested for first grade. 

7. Wild animals : Rabbit, squirrel, etc. 

8. Weather : As suggested for first grade. 

Hygiene 

The very great importance of good health and 
physical vigor demands that children shall be trained 



The Course of Study 193 

very early in matters of hygiene. In the lower grades 
the primary purpose of the teacher should be to get 
pupils to put into practice and make habitual those 
rules of right living which are essential to good health. 
Since some of the pupils probably come from homes 
in which these rules are not known or observed, a 
secondary purpose is to impart health instruction 
through the children to other members of the family. 

First Grade. (Alternate with second grade.) 

1. Posture : Teach, and have pupils put into practice, correct 
postures in sitting, in standing, in work and exercise. 

2. Cleanliness: Bathing and care of the skin; importance of 
clean hands and clean clothing; cleanliness in connection with 
food and eating. 

3. Food : Why we eat ; kinds of food best for children ; regu- 
larity in eating ; rules for eating. 

Second Grade. (Alternate with first grade.) 

1. Fresh air: Purpose; importance of fresh air in the home 
and schoolroom; breathing habits; importance of working and 
playing in the open air. 

2. Sleep : Why needed ; amount needed by children ; im- 
portance of regularity in sleeping; changes of clothing on retir- 
ing ; fresh air in the sleeping room. 

3. Clothing: Comparison of winter and summer clothing; 
effects of exposure, wet feet, etc. 

Social Studies 

By the time children are old enough to enter school 
their social instinct is fairly strong. They want to 
play and work together and are interested in the ac- 
tivities of other people. The social studies in the 
lower grades are intended primarily to guide this in- 
terest of children in such a way as to give them some 
insight into, and practice in, the essentials of group 
life. Sympathy, mutual helpfulness, cooperation and 



194 Rural School Management 

division of labor are some of the lessons to be learned 
and put into practice by the children. 

First Grade. (Alternate with second grade.) 

1. Training in cooperation, helpfulness and division of labor 
through : 

a. Plays and games. 

b. Handwork projects. 

c. Preparing for some special school event, such as a Hal- 

lowe'en party. 

2. Home life of children at present : The family as a form of 
group life — its members, what each does, the needs of the family, 
pleasures in the home, government. 

Second Grade. (Alternate with first, grade.) 

1. Social training as suggested for first year. 

2. Primitive home life : The Indian family — how the needs 
of food, clothing, and shelter are provided for. The share of 
each member of the family in (1) making the home, (2) providing 
clothing, (3) procuring and preparing food. 

Handwork 

Two types of handwork should be recognized. (1) 
The making of the things children want for their own 
use, for the school, or to give to other people. This 
type of work is regarded as highly educative both in- 
tellectually and socially. Hence it should have an 
important place in the school. (2) Handwork in 
connection with other subjects. Making booklets in 
nature study; constructing and furnishing a doll's 
house or an Indian wigwam in social studies; draw- 
ing, paper folding or cutting, and modeling with clay 
in connection with reading and stories — these are a 
few illustrations of this type of handwork. Oppor- 
tunities for such work are abundant in nearly all of 
the subjects the pupils study. Since children are par- 
ticularly fond of working with their hands, they usually 



The Course of Study 195 

become deeply interested in any topic that affords an 
opportunity for such activity. 

In general, the handwork should be done as " seat " 
work between recitations. However, a recitation pe- 
riod should be used as often as is necessary to get the 
children started on their projects or to help them over- 
come their difficulties. 

Plays and Games 

The play instinct is one of the most deep-seated in- 
terests of children. An abundance of play activity is 
known to be essential to the health and the physical and 
mental development of children. Hence, the school 
should make ample provision for the exercise of this 
tendency. The recess and noon intermissions should be 
used, whenever possible, for outdoor plays and games. 
In addition, provision should be made for the smaller 
children to play as a part of their school work. Among 
the very great variety of activities that are suitable for 
indoor use the following may be mentioned : 

1. Singing games. 

2. Circle games. 

3. Simple contests, such as bean bag, ring toss, etc. 

4. Imitation plays, such as keeping house, store, etc. 

Stories 

The telling of stories may be made one of the most 
valuable of all school exercises for small children. 
Little folks love good stories and, through hearing and 
reading them, their lives are enriched and ennobled. 
Any child who does not have an opportunity to im- 
bibe the best there is in children's literature is de- 
prived of one of the naost precious rights of childhood. 



196 Rural School Management 

t 

By all means, then, the school program should make 
provision for the telling, reading, and dramatization of 
stories. The material for this work should be selected 
from the best fairy tales, fables, legends, myths, Bible 
stories, and nature stories. No attempt is made here to 
name the stories best suited for children, but the teacher 
is referred to the following books for suggestions : 

Andersen : Fairy Tales and Stories. 

Bailey : For the Story Teller. 

Bryant : How to Tell Stories to Children. 

Stories to Tell to Children. 
Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh : List of Good Stories to Tell to 

Children under Twelve Years of Age. 
McMuRRY : Special Methods in Reading. 

CLASS C 
(Third and Fourth Grades) " 
Reading 

Third Grade. (Alternate with fourth grade.) 

1. Continue drills in phonics and pronunciation with a view 
to giving pupils such a mastery as will enable them to grasp the 
essential thought of the selection. Emphasize silent reading. 

2. Read a selected half of the lessons in the third reader text. 

3. Selections from Stevenson's "Child's Garden of Verse." 
Poems appropriate to the seasons, holidays, and celebrations. 

4. Stories and other selections from the school library, for 
seat and home reading. Frequent reading of a selection by one 
pupil to the class as an audience. 

Fourth Grade. (Alternate with third grade.) 

1. All of the lessons in the third reader text not read during 
the third year. 

2. Additional material for class use: "The Child's Garden of 
Verse," Kipling's "Jungle Books," "Alice in Wonderland," 
" Pinocchio," " The Nuremberg Stove." 

3. Library material as suggested for third year. 



The Course of Study 197 

Arithmetic 

The function which arithmetic performs outside of 
school should determine the chief purpose in teaching 
the subject in school, particularly in the elementary 
grades. Clearly this function is to enable people to 
make the number computations which arise in the 
affairs of everyday life. In order to make these com- 
putations most efficiently, three things are essential : 
(1) absolute accuracy in the fundamental processes, 
including integers, common fractions, and decimal 
fractions; (2) reasonable rapidity; and (3) ability to 
apply these processes in the solution of those types 
of problems most commonly met with in home 
and ordinary business life. These, then, are the 
aims which should determine both the selection of 
the material and the method of instruction in this 
subject. 

Third Grade. 

Pupils in this class will have some knowledge of numbers 
gained through play, handwork, nature study, and the formal 
work of the second grade. This knowledge should be extended 
along the following lines: 

1. Reading and writing numbers not to exceed 1000. 

2. Number combinations and tables. 

3. Simple problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplica- 
tion, and division. 

4. Such simple fractions as arise in connection with games, 
handwork, measurements, etc. 

Fourth Grade. 

By the end of this year pupils should be able to : 

1. Read and write numbers as large as may be needed. 

2. Add and subtract numbers as large as are usually met with 
in the home or in ordinary business. 

3. Multiply with three-figure numbers, divide with two-figure 
numbers. 



198 Rural School Management 

4. Add and subtract U. S. money; compute cost with such 
common units of measure as pounds, tons, bushels, etc. ; measure 
length or distance in inches, feet, and yards ; handle simple frac- 
tions as needed in solving concrete problems. 

5. Solve practical problems involving two operations. Any 
good text may be used as a guide, but it should be abundantly 
supplemented with material drawn from the home, the farm, 
and other subjects in school. 

Language and Spelling 

The foremost aim in formal language teaching is 
the formation of habits of correct oral and written 
expression. To this end, every lesson in which the 
pupil uses oral or written language to express 
his thoughts should be an exercise in the use of 
correct forms. Hence, the necessity for correlating 
the language work with all the other work of the 
school. 

Since the only need for spelling arises in connection 
with written discourse, the material for this aspect of- 
language training should be selected with a view to 
mastering those words which are in most common 
use in practical life. One period a week, or more if 
needed, may be devoted to drills on words selected 
from pupils' written exercises and from Ayres' " Thou- 
sand Commonest Words in English Writing." 

Third Grade. (Alternate with fourth grade.) 

1. Oral language : Reproduction of stories read by pupils and 
of incidents from the pupil's own experience ; constant attention 
to irregular verbs and personal pronouns in common use. 

2. Written language : Composition — brief exercises upon 
subjects treated in other lines of work; development of simple 
outline. Letter-writing — letter to a friend. Paragraphing — 
treated in an elementary manner. Comma after words used in 
series. Correct use of to, too, two; there, their; no, know; here, 
hear; meet, meat. 



The Course of Study 199 

Fourth Grade. (Alternate with third grade.) 

1. Oral language: Continuation of work outlined for third 
year. 

2. Written language : Composition — children assist in making 
outline. Paragraphing — indentation, margin. Use of quotation 
marks and period after abbreviations. Use of capitals in titles and 
poetry. 

History Stories 

History teaching in the lower grades should aim 
definitely to give pupils those ideals that make for 
nobility of character. These ideals are best gained 
through an intimate contact with the lives of the best 
men and v/omen of our own and other times. This 
aim demands that the course in history for the lower 
grades shall consist of biographies — of stories of in- 
teresting events and noble deeds in the lives of prom- 
inent people. 

Third Grade. (Alternate with fourth grade.) 

1. Stories in connection with holidays and the anniversaries 
of important events — Thanksgiving, Columbus Day, Washing- 
ton's Birthday, etc. 

2. Greek and Roman stories, such as the story of Ulysses, of 
Alexander, of Horatius. 

3. Bible stories, such as the story of Moses, of Joseph, of 
David. 

4. Stories from the lives of noted people who have figured in 
American history; such as Columbus, Washington, Lincoln, 
Frances Willard, Clara Barton, and as many others as there is 
time for. 

Fourth Grade. (Alternate with third grade.) 

1. Story work in connection with holidays and anniversaries, 
as suggested for third year. 

2. Interesting stories of some of the most important American 
explorers and early settlers. 

3. Stories of a few American statesmen and leaders. 



200 Rural School Management 

Social Studies 

Third Grade. (Alternate with fourth grade.) 

1. Continuation of social training through various school ac- 
tivities, as suggested for preceding grades. 

2. The neighborhood as a form of group life. 

a. How composed. 

b. Location of the school, the church, and any other public 
places. 

c. Instances of, and opportunities for, cooperation. 

d. Special services needed — the need for a doctor, a black- 
smith, a carpenter, a mail carrier, a teacher, etc. The service 
rendered by each and what he receives in return. 

Fourth Grade. (Alternate with third grade.) 

1. Continuation of social training through school activities. 

2. The school as a form of group life. 

a. How composed — teacher, pupils, janitor. What each 
does, how each can help the other, etc. 

b. Government — why necessary, how administered, etc. 



Nature Study 

(Alternate with Oral Geography) 
The work for this year necessarily includes many of 
the topics studied during previous years. But third 
year pupils are able to learn more about the topics than 
are pupils in the lower grades. The following outline 
is suggestive of the work that should be covered during 
the year, each topic being studied at the time best 
suited for such study. 

1. Plant Life. 

a. Seeds : Functions, how protected, how disseminated, com- 
parative number in different plants, observations on germina- 
tion, collection of various kinds. 

b. Leaves: Functions, kinds, coloring at different seasons, 
recognition of several varieties. 



The Course of Study 201 

c. Flowers : Principal wild and cultivated varieties, parts, the 
flower garden, flower exhibit. 

d. Vegetables : The vegetable garden — preparation of soil, 
varieties to plant, cultivation, vegetable exhibit. 

2. Animal Life. 

a. Birds : Appearance, habits, beneficial and injurious species. 
h. Insects: Life history, beneficial and injurious insects. 
Special study of house fly, mosquito, bumblebee. 

3. Seasonal Changes : Effects on animal and plant life, prepara- 
tion for winter, renewal of life in spring, etc. 



Oral Geography 

(Alternate with Nature Study) 
The primary purpose of the first work in geography 
is to lay the foundation needed for later study. This 
preparation should start with simple concrete facts 
pertaining to the child's own environment, give him the 
means of acquiring further knowledge, and acquaint 
him, in a general way, with the field to be covered. 

1. Local geography : Local surface features, atmosphere, local 
industries, commerce and trade, means of communication. 

2. Map interpretation and map making. 

3. The earth as a whole. 

a. Size, shape, distribution of land and water. 

b. Brief study of all of the continents and principal countries. 

Hygiene 

Third Grade. (Alternate with fourth grade.) 

1. Pure air : Ventilation of schoolroom, bedroom, sitting room. 

2. Care of teeth, eyes, ears, and nails. 

3. Effects of tobacco, cigarette smoking, alcohol. 

Fourth Grade. (Alternate with third grade.) 

1. Pure water: Sources of water supply, how contaminated, 
drinking cups, etc. 

2. Disposal of sewage and garbage at school and at home. 



202 Rural School Management 

3. Safeguards against epidemics : Duty of each person, quaran- 
tine law, public health officer. 

4. Tuberculosis : Cause, prevention, treatment — care of 
patient, protection of other people. 



CLASS B 

(Fifth and Sixth Grades) 

Reading 

By the time pupils reach this grade they should 
have acquired considerable ability in getting the 
thought from a printed page. Where this process has 
not been mastered, it should continue to receive the 
attention of the teacher. The primary aim here, how- 
ever, is to cultivate a taste for good literature. Hence 
the importance of selecting reading material which 
has genuine literary value. 

Fifth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) 

1. A selected half of the lessons in a standard fourth reader text. 

2. Such of the following as time will permit : " The Story of 
Robin Hood " ; " Lobo, I^ag, and Vixen " ; " Pied Piper of Hame- 
lin" ; " King Arthur and His Knights" ; " Hiawatha." 

3. Standard literature selected from the school library, to be 
read at home. 

Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) 

1. The remaining lessons in the fourth reader text. 

2. Selections from Hawthorne's "Wonder Book," Ruskin's 
"King of the Golden River." 

3. Other literature drawn from the library, for home reading. 

Arithmetic 

Fifth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) 

1. Review of fundamental processes. 

2. Careful study of fractions, 

3. Denominate numbers and practical measurements. 



The Course of Study 203 

Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) 

1. Review of fundamental processes. 

2. Decimals. 

3. Percentage. 

Geography 

Beginning with the fifth year and extending through- 
out the course, two main ideas underhe the work in 
geography : (1) where those activities are carried on 
through which human wants are satisfied, and (2) 
why these activities are found in certain places. The 
important industries, therefore, and the physiographic 
and chmatic conditions which influence them, are the 
points to be emphasized in the teaching of this subject. 
The study of mountains, rivers, capes, bays, etc., is 
important only when a knowledge of these is necessary 
to a better understanding of the activities of people. 

The general plan of a good text should be followed, 
but much of the textbook material should be omitted 
and supplementary material dealing with industries, 
travel, and commerce substituted therefor. 

Fifth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) 

1. North America: Brief general survey. Omit all unimpor- 
tant places and features. 

2. United States : Physical regions and features. 

3. State groups: Leading industries and commercial centers 
and the physiographic and climatic conditions affecting same, in 
each group. Type study of each of the following in connection 
with the group of states in which it is the most important industry : 

a. Wheat growing and flour milling. 
h. Corn raising. 

c. The cotton industry. 

d. Coal mining. 

e. Lumbering. 

4. Alaska, Canada, Mexico: Physical features, climate, re- 
sources, industries. 



204 Rural School Management 

Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) 

1. Europe : Brief general survey. 

2. Important European countries : Physical features, climate, 
industries, commercial centers, and routes. 

3. South America : General features, main countries, important 
industries. Special study of coffee industry. 

4. Asia: General description, countries, people, products. 
The tea industry. 

5. Africa: Brief general survey. Rubber and diamond in- 
dustries. 

6. Australia and Oceania: Position and influence, physical 
features, climate, occupations, importance to other countries. 

Agricultural Nature Study 

Fifth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) 

1. Plant structure : Roots, stem, leaves, flower. 

2. Plant physiology : Food, growth, propagation — germina- 
tion, budding, cutting, grafting. 

Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) 

1. Plant enemies : Weeds, insects, diseases. 

2. Fruit growing: Varieties adapted to locality, planting and 
care of trees, enemies, harvesting and marketing the fruit. 

Language and Spelling 

Fifth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) 

Composition — as in class C. Description and narration. 
Children make outline to write from. Study and memorize 
selected poems. Letter writing — business letters. Pupils write 
for bulletins, folders, etc., for use in other subjects. Paragraphing. 
Essentials of punctuation completed and reviewed. Formation 
of plurals and possessives. 

Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) 

Composition, memorizing poetry, letter writing, making out- 
lines continued. Use of negatives. Abbreviations. The sen- 
tence — subject and predicate. 



The Course of Study 205 

History 

The material outlined for the preceding grades is 
wholly biographical in character. Beginning with 
this class a more connected account of our country's 
history should be given. The general plan of a good 
elementary text may be followed. 

Fijth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) 

From the Period of Discovery to the formation of the New 
Republic, inclusive. This should be a brief elementary survey, 
omitting all persons and events which are of only minor im- 
portance. 

Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) 

From the organization of the hew government to the present 
time. 

Manual Training 

While manual training undoubtedly has other values 
quite as important, clearly the foremost purpose of 
teaching the subject in a rural school is the practical 
one of giving pupils some skill in the making of things 
needed in the home or on the farm. Skill in the use of 
tools is best acquired when the pupil is deeply in- 
terested in making some article which he regards as 
valuable. Hence the importance of selecting for the 
bench work those articles which serve a real need in 
the school, on the playground, in the home, or on the 
farm. The list necessarily varies with local condi- 
tions, but the following are suggestive of what may be 
selected : 

Fifth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) 

Pencil sharpener, plant label, match scratcher, game board 
or counting board, nail boxes, bird houses, boxes for window 
garden, etc. 



206 Rural School Management 

Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) 

Bill file, ringtoss, bread board, plant marker, hatrack, swing 
board, etc. 

Sewing 

The primary purpose of sewing in the school, like 
that of manual training, is to give pupils some practi- 
cal skill in making things needed in the home either for 
themselves or for other members of the family. The 
following points should be emphasized in all of the 
work done in this subject : 

1. The making of things of use in the home or school that 
require the different kinds of stitches. 

2. Mending — articles to be brought from the homes. 

3. Instruction in position, materials needed, etc. 

4. Neatness in all the work done. 

5. Care of garments. 

CLASS A 

(Seventh and Eighth Grades) 
Literature 
Seventh Grade. (Alternate with eighth grade.) 

1. Literary classics, such as "Enoch Arden," "Legend of 
Sleepy Hollow," "Miles Standish," "Rip Van Winkle," "Christ- 
mas Carol," "Vision of Sir Launfal," etc, 

2. Shorter poems, such as "The Daffodils," "The Heritage," 
"The Day Is Done," "An Autumn Festival," " Snowflakes," 
"Recessional," etc. 

3. Standard books for individual reading, such as "Grand- 
father's Chair," "Red Rover," "The Spy," "Deerslayer," "Boys 
of '76," "Treasure Island," "Being a Boy," etc. 

Eighth Grade. (Alternate with seventh grade.) 

1. Such classics as "Evangeline," "Snowbound," "Tales from 
Shakespeare, "."Sohrab. and Rustum," "The, Man without a 
Country," etc. 



The Course of Study 207 

2. Short poems, such as "Autumn Woods," "To a Water- 
fowl," "The Snowstorm," "Spring Has Come," "Old Ironsides," 
"The Chambered Nautilus," "Building the Ship," "The Vaga- 
bonds," "Midwinter," etc. 

3. Other standard literature from library, for individual 
reading. 

Arithmetic 

Seventh Grade. (Alternate with eighth grade.) 

1. Review of fundamental operations, fractions, decimals. 

2. The more important applications of percentage, such as : 
a. Interest — one method only. 

h. Insurance — farm, hail, automobile. 

c. Stocks — in connection with local stock companies, such as 
creamery, telephone, elevator, etc. 

d. Bonds — school district, municipal, state. 

e. Taxes — in connection with the study of civics. 

Eighth Grade. (Alternate with seventh grade.) 

1. Practical measurements and mensuration. 

2. Practical problems pertaining to farm and home accounts. 
Correlate with agriculture and domestic science. 

Grammar 

The main purpose of the study of this subject is to 
put pupils in possession of those principles of technical 
grammar most needed as a standard in determining 
the correctness of their own language. The work is 
stripped of all technicalities and fine distinctions not 
essential to this end. 

Seventh Grade. (Alternate with eighth grade.) 
The Sentence. 

1. Kinds — as to use ; as to structure. 

2. Parts. 

a. Subject — bare, complete; simple, compound; modifiers. 

b. Predicate — bare, complete ; simple, compound ; modifiers. 

c. Complements — attribute, objective. 



208 Rural School Management 

3. Phrases and clauses — as to use ; as to structure. 

4. Practice in sentence analysis. 

Eighth Grade. (Alternate with seventh grade.) 
Parts of Speech. 

1. Noun. 

a. Kinds — common and proper. 
6. Gender, number, and case forms. 

2. Pronoun. 

a. Kinds — personal, interrogative, relative. 

h. Antecedent. 

c. Gender, number, and case forms. 

3. Adjective — comparison. 

4. Verb. 

a. Kinds — transitive, intransitive ; regular, irregular. 
6. Person and number forms. 

c. Voice — active and passive. 

d. Mood — indicative and imperative. 

e. Tenses — all of the six. 

/. Infinitives and participles. 

5. Adverb. 

6. Preposition. 

7. Conjunction. 

8. Interjection. 

Geography 

(Alternate with Physiology) 

1. Principles of geography. 

a. Form, size, and movements of the earth. 
6. Latitude and longitude and standard time. 
c. Distribution of temperature and rainfall; winds, zones, 
ocean currents. 

2. The pupil's home state, the United States, and a few of the im- 
portant foreign countries, studied according to the following outline : 

a. Location. 

h. Physical features or regions. 

c. Climatic conditions — wind, temperature, rainfall. 

d. Industry as determined by physiographic and climatic 
conditions. 

e. Commercial centers — reasons for location, principal articles 
of commerce. 



The Course of Study 209 

/. Transportation routes — water, railroad; articles trans- 
ported each way. 

g. Exports — what, where to. 

h. Imports — what, where from. 

i. Agencies for promoting and regulating commerce. 

Physiology 
(Alternate with Geography) 

In the lower grades children are taught the im- 
portant health rules with a view to putting them into 
immediate practice. In this final course the aim is 
to give such instruction in the structure and functions 
of the organs of the body and in bacteriology as will 
explain the reasons for the rules put into practice. 

Any good recent text in hygiene may be used as a 
guide, but it should be supplemented with assigned 
readings from other texts, health bulletins, etc. 

History 
(Alternate with Civics and Rural Sociology) 
The final year's work in history may well follow the 
general plan of any good recent text. If the text used 
contains more material than can be covered in the 
allotted time, the omissions should be made in con- 
nection with the following topics : 

1. Explorations : Omit all but a few of the more important. 

2. Colonies : Study Virginia, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and 
New York only. 

3. Intercolonial wars: Omit everything not essential to an 
understanding of the outcome — English supremacy on the 
continent. 

4. All other wars: Omit all unimportant campaigns and 
battles. 

5. Political parties: Omit all except Federal, Democratic, 
Whig, and Republican. 



210 Rural School Management 

Civics 

In the half year devoted to the study of this subject 
the work is directed toward giving pupils a knowledge 
of those phases of government most essential to the 
intelligent performance of the more important duties 
of citizenship. The material selected for study con- 
sists of those problems of government which are of 
common concern to the community and in which the 
pupil will have acquired some interest through his 
home environment. The following topics are sug- 
gested. The best time to study each is when it is in 
the focus of public attention. 

1. Elections. 5. Land transfers and titles. 

2. Taxation. 6. The settlement of estates. 

3. How a suspected criminal is 7. How state laws are made. 

dealt with. 8. The good roads problem. 

4. Public health. 9. Public charity — care of the 

poor, insane, etc. 

Rural Sociology 

The new conception of the mission of the rural 
school regards it as an agency for social betterment in 
the community in which it is located. To the end that 
pupils may know what conditions prevail, in general, 
and how some of these conditions may be improved, 
an elementary study of some of the more important 
local problems is undertaken. In the half year de- 
voted to this study the following topics are among 
those considered : 

1. The country home: Present conditions; possible improve- 
ments as to conveniences, sanitation, attractiveness, sources of 
pleasure, etc. 

2. The country school: Present status, mission, improve- 
ments in building, grounds, equipment, consolidation. 



The Course of Study 211 

3. The country church. 

4. The rural labor problem : Conditions which give rise to the 
problem, social results, remedies. 

5. Social recreations: Present means, the school as a social 
center, community centers. 

6. Country life organizations : The Grange, farmers' clubs, etc. 

Agriculture 

Seventh Grade. (Alternate with eighth grade.) 

1. Soils: Origin, composition, kinds, texture, soil water, soil 
improvement. 

2. Farm crops: Cereals, grasses, legumes. 

a. Culture: Preparation of soil, selecting and testing seed, 
planting, cultivation. 
6. Marketing. 

Eighth Grade. (Alternate with seventh grade.) 

1. Farm animals : Horses, hogs, cattle, sheep. 

a. Types and breeds. 

b. Feeding and care of. 

2. Farm management : 

a. Kinds of farming — diversified, specialized ; intensive, ex- 
tensive. 

b. Farm buildings — barns, granaries, silos, etc. 

c. Farm machinery. 

d. Farm accounts. 

Domestic Science 

Seventh Grade. (Alternate with eighth grade.) 

1. Sewing : Use of sewing machine ; cutting and fitting simple 
garments ; taste and economy in dress. 

2. Elementary study of textiles : Cotton, linen, woolen, and silk. 

3. Home furnishing and decoration. 

Eighth Grade. (Alternate with seventh grade.) 
1. Cooking. 

a. Utensils and their uses. 

b. Preparation of dishes for warm school lunch. 

c. The. cooking of cereals, eggs, vegetables, meats. 



212 Rural School Management 

d. Breadmaking, cakes, and pastry. 

e. Canning — fruits and vegetables. • 
/. Setting table and serving. 

2. Household accounts. 

Manual Training 

The projects for the bench work should be selected 
in accordance with the interests and needs of the pu- 
pils. Hence, no fixed list of articles can be prescribed. 
The following list is suggestive only : 

1 . For use at the school. 
Playground equipment. 
Ventilating boards for windows. 
Cupboard for school cooking utensils. 
Cabinet for individual drinking cups. 
Shelf for school window garden. 
Plant stand, and boxes for plants. 
Frames for wall pictures. 

Bird houses, plant markers. 

2. For use in the homes. 

Post card box. Teapot stand. 

Photo shelf. Broom holder. 

Coat hanger. Sleeve board. 

Hatrack. Bookrack. 

Glove box. Footstool. 

3. For play and sport. 

Sled. Game board. 

Box trap. . Windmill, etc. 

Music, Drawing, Writing 
(In All Classes) 
Music. It is admitted that adequate instruction in 
music requires a closer gradation of material and a 
larger share of time than are possible under conditions 
which prevail in a rural school. The daily program 
(page 181) provides two periods a week for instruction 



The Course of Study 213 

in this subject. Such use of this time should be made 
as will contribute most to the attainment of the fol- 
lowing ends : (1) ability to read simple four part music, 
(2) familiarity with and ability to sing several good 
songs, (3) an appreciation of the best vocal and in- 
strumental music. In connection with the latter 
the talking machine offers opportunities not heretofore 
possible. 

Drawing. The work in this subject is, in a large 
measure, correlated with the content subjects of the 
course of study. Two periods a week may be devoted 
to formal instruction in drawing. The ideals which 
dominate the work are : (1) an elementary knowledge 
of the materials and principles of drawing, (2) ability 
to sketch fairly accurately and rapidly with pencil or 
brush, and (3) an appreciation of the best productions 
of the great artists. 

Writing. (1) To be able to write a fairly neat, legible 
hand with reasonable speed, and (2) to use this ability 
on all occasions where the pupil communicates his 
thoughts in writing — these are the ends to be at- 
tained. Therefore every written exercise in the 
school should be an exercise in writing until the de- 
sired hand has become habitual. One formal writing 
period per week should be used (1 ) to give instruc- 
tion as to position, movement, manner of holding 
pen or pencil, and (2) to practice on those forms which 
pupils find most difficult. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Betts and Hall: Better Rural Schools, Chapters III-VI. 
Carney : Country Life and the Country School, pp. 239-246. 
COLGROVE : The Teacher and the School, Chapter IX. 
CuBBERLEY : Rural Life and Education, Chapter XI. 



CHAPTER X 
SCHOOL ATTENDANCE 

I. IMPORTANCE OF REGULARITY OF ATTENDANCE 

We have already learned that the special function 
of the school is to educate the children of the com- 
munity. This function the school cannot perform 
unless the children attend it. Hence, regularity of 
attendance on the part of all the pupils is essential 
to the highest success of the school. How this may be 
accomplished is one of the most important problems 
in school management. 

Civic Importance. Regularity of attendance is of 
the utmost importance, first, in order that the children 
may get the training for citizenship which the state 
expects them to have. From the standpoint of the 
state, public schools are maintained primarily to make 
better citizens out of the children than they would 
otherwise become. It is a well-known fact that chil- 
dren who do not attend the schools do not, as a rule, 
become the leading citizens, or even the best tjrpe of 
people, in any community. There are, of course, oc- 
casional exceptions to this rule, but in general it is true. 

It is held now that the duties of citizenship demand 
an education equivalent, at the very least, to gradu- 
ation from the eighth grade. The following facts serve 
to illustrate in a forcible way the significance of non- 
attendance in relation to preparation for civic life. 
The rural school inspector in one state found (1913) 
that the graduations from the eighth grade in the rural 

214 



School Attendance 215 

schools of his state represented only seven per cent of 
the boys and twelve per cent of the girls who enrolled 
in the first grade eight years previous. He found also 
that the average number of days attended by each 
pupil (1913) was eighty-four — approximately half of 
the days the schools were in session. Some allowance 
must be made, of course, for those who may have at- 
tended parochial or other private schools. But even 
then it is perfectly clear that non-attendance was, in 
this case, very largely responsible for the failure of a 
large number of boys and girls to complete an elemen- 
tary course of eight grades. Now these boys and 
girls will constitute a considerable portion of the 
citizens of that state in the next generation. Here, 
then, will be a large number of men and women charged 
with the responsibilities and surrounded with the op- 
portunities of life, and they will not have an education 
equivalent to graduation from the eighth grade of a 
rural school. Such people are not only not trained for 
service and leadership, they are, in many cases, handi- 
capped in the struggle for making a living and are de- 
prived of those means of enjoying the higher things of 
life which it is one of the functions of education to 
impart. This is the price which society in general and 
these boys and girls themselves will have to pay for 
non-attendance at school. 

The conditions just described may be, and no doubt 
are, worse than they are in a great many other states. 
Yet it is well known that non-attendance is greater in 
rural schools than it is in city schools. In so far as 
this is true it means that country children are either 
missing their opportunity, or are being deprived of 
their right, to get the training which is necessary for 
enjoyment and good citizenship in. later life. 



216 Rural School Management 

Economic Importance. The problem of school at- 
tendance is important, in the second place, because of 
its economic aspect. By the economic aspect we mean 
the relation of the returns or value received to the 
cost of maintaining the schools. It is a well-established 
principle among business men that that enterprise is 
best managed which yields the largest returns in 
proportion to the cost of operation. Let us examine 
the problem of school attendance in the light of this 
principle. 

The chief items of expense in maintaining a school 
are the teacher's salary, the janitor's wages, and the 
cost of fuel. These expenses are the same whether all 
or only a few of the children in the district attend the 
school. There is no reduction in the cost of operating 
the school when some of the children are absent. In 
other words, the district pays for the education of all 
the children of the school. But when some of the 
children are absent and are, therefore, receiving no 
benefit from the school, the taxpayers lose their school 
funds in proportion to the number of children who are 
out of school. 

A few concrete illustrations will help to make this 
matter clear. In one district in which there were 
twenty-five pupils enumerated, only two attended the 
school during the first month of the term. In another 
district twenty-four pupils were enumerated, and only 
four attended the first six weeks of school. In still 
another district there were forty-five children, with 
twenty-two in attendance. In fifteen districts of a 
certain county there were three hundred and thirty- 
two children of school age, with only one hundred 
and sixty-one actually attending the school. In these 
fifteen districts the teachers and janitors drew their 



School Attendance 217 

regular salaries, and the school buildings were heated 
and kept in repair. But the number of children who 
were benefited by these expenses was only fifty per 
cent of what it should have been. Thus the commu- 
nity received only half the value from the school that 
it would have received had all of the children been 
in attendance. 

Some of the instances just given are, of course, ex- 
treme cases. The facts were collected at a time when 
many of the children were out of school to help with 
the farm work. Nevertheless, the facts reveal con- 
ditions which, in the main, are typical of rural schools 
in many sections of the country. Statistics show that 
the average daily attendance in the public schools of 
the United States, including rural, village, and town 
schools, is less than seventy-five per cent of the num- 
ber enrolled. When due allowance is made for the 
better attendance in village and town schools and for 
the number of children who ought to be in school but 
do not even enroll, certainly conditions in rural schools 
as a whole are not very much better than they are in 
the county just cited. 

This phase of school attendance constitutes a part 
of the basis for the charge that the public schools in- 
volve the largest economic waste of any enterprise in 
the country. Certainly no private industry could be 
successfully conducted on the same business principle. 
Since there is no practicable method of adjusting the 
expenses of running the school to the number of 
pupils in actual attendance, the only way to get 
larger returns on the money expended is to bring 
about a better school attendance. Some means of 
attaining this end are discussed in a later section of 
the chapter. 



218 Rural School Management 

Pedagogical Importance. By the pedagogical sig- 
nificance of attendance is meant its effects on the 
school work of both individual pupils and the school 
as a whole. Non-attendance has been found by teach- 
ers everywhere to be one of the most serious hin- 
drances to the teaching work of the school. If a pupil 
is out of school very much, he falls behind in his work 
and one of three things must follow : (1) He will fail 
of promotion at the end of the term, or (2) he will drop 
out of school permanently, or (3) the teacher will 
have to give him extra time and special help to make 
up the work missed. 

Non-attendance is one of the most common causes 
of failure of promotion. If a pupil misses any con- 
siderable portion of the work in his grade, it neces- 
sarily follows, in most cases, that he will not be able 
to do the work of the next grade. Consequently, he 
is retained in the same grade for another term. It 
frequently happens, however, that a pupil gets very 
little benefit from repeating the work of a grade, for, 
as a rule, he lacks interest in the work because there is 
so little in it that is new to him. He is disappointed 
at not being able to go on with his class and resents 
being classed with younger or smaller pupils. The 
outcome in many such cases is that the pupil fails a 
second time, and when this happens he will generally, 
if permitted to do so, drop out of school altogether 
rather than remain longer in the same grade. 

Absence serves to eliminate pupils from school by a 
more direct method in many instances. After a pro- 
longed absence, or after repeated short absences, the 
pupil finds that he cannot keep up with his class. Ac- 
cordingly, he loses interest, becomes discouraged, and 
then decides to quit school for the remainder of the 



School Attendance 219 

term. In most cases of this sort the pupil does not 
return to school at all. Thus prematurely ends the 
school career of many a country boy or girl, who is 
destined thereby to go through life without having 
come into possession of his or her birthright of an ele- 
mentary education. 

Such, in numerous instances, are the results of non- 
attendance unless the consequences are averted through 
special effort on the part of the teacher. Many teach- 
ers are naturally in sympathy with the pupil who is 
behind in his work and want to see him catch up with 
his class. To this end they give him special attention 
and assistance. This necessarily constitutes an extra 
tax on the time and energy of the teacher and deprives 
the other pupils of the attention they are entitled to 
receive. The whole school, therefore, suffers neglect 
on account of the pupil who has fallen behind. Fur- 
thermore, there is a conscious or unconscious tendency 
on the part of most teachers to hold back an entire 
class until the non-attendant member has had time to 
make up his work. Thus, the whole class is retarded 
in its progress in order to accommodate the one or more 
pupils who have been out of school. In such cases the 
non-attendant becomes " a dead weight that the re- 
mainder of the class is forced to carry." Such con- 
ditions certainly are not conducive to the best school 
work, and that school falls short of its highest possi- 
bilities which must accommodate itself to the situation 
created by prolonged or habitual non-attendance. 

Summary. The problem of school attendance is one of the 
biggest problems in school management. Regularity of attend- 
ance is of the utmost importance in three ways : (1) It is the only 
means through which the school can perform its special function 
of training children for the duties of citizenship ; (2) non-attend- 



220 Rural School Management 

ance involves an economic waste or loss to the taxpayers in pro- 
portion to the number of children who do not attend the school; 
and (3) non-attendance is a serious hindrance to the teaching 
work of the school in that it causes (a) the failure of promotion 
of the absentees, (b) tends to eliminate pupils from the school, 
and (c) operates to retard the progress of an entire class, and, to 
some extent, the whole school. 

n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

Having pointed out the very great importance of 
regularity of attendance, our next step is to see what 
difficulties stand in the way of its attainment. Causes 
of non-attendance vary so greatly with different com- 
munities and with different sections of the country 
that it may be impossible to include all of them in a 
single list. The following, however, are believed to be 
those which are most widespread and most serious in 
their effects. 

Indifference of Patrons. The indifference of patrons 
has already been mentioned as one of the serious hin- 
drances to the work of the school. There is, perhaps, no 
phase of a child's education in which the indifference 
of his parents can do so much harm as in connection 
with his attendance at school. There are some par- 
ents in every community who are deeply interested 
in the education of their children and take every 
precaution to keep them in school every day it is 
possible for them to attend. On the other hand, 
there are some parents in almost every district who 
regard the school as a thing of secondary importance. 
They feel at liberty to keep their children out of school 
at any time they can be of service at home. They per- 
mit their children to remain at home at almost any 
time and for almost any reason. Such parents do not 
understand the effects of habitual absence upon both 



School Attendance 221 

their own children and the children of their neighbors. 

Some methods of overcoming this indifference are 
discussed in Chapter 11. If the suggestions given there 
are acted upon, the result will be a marked improve- 
ment in the regularity of school attendance. 

Work at Home. Having to work at home is another 
common cause of children's absence from school. The 
conditions which give rise to absence from this cause 
are of two types; namely, poverty in the home, and 
the greed of parents. 

There are undoubtedly many instances in which 
children are kept out of school because their work is 
needed to help support the family. Usually the com- 
pulsory attendance law recognizes this condition as a 
valid reason for absence, and such parents are not re- 
quired to send their children to school. But the 
situation is none the less unfortunate for the children. 
Occasionally, public-spirited and charitable neighbors 
come to the assistance of such families, especially in 
the case of widowed mothers, furnishing the means 
necessary to keep the children in school. Such assist- 
ance usually takes the form of " working bees," or 
donations of food, articles of clothing, and school- 
books, if these. are not furnished by the district. A few 
states have enacted Mothers' Pension Laws which help 
to overcome the difficulty in such cases. 

It occasionally happens, however, that children are 
kept out of school to work because their parents are 
unwilling to pay out money for hired help. Such 
parents seem perfectly willing to sacrifice the future 
welfare of their children in order to accumulate a little 
larger bank account. It is in such cases as this that 
the compulsory attendance law should be applied in 
full force. It is clearly the duty of society to protect 



222 Rural School Management 

children from the greed of their own parents when 
this greed operates to deprive them of their right to an 
education . The compulsory attendance law is the means 
which society has devised to accomplish this end, and 
it should be vigorously enforced in all such cases. 

Dislike for School Work. A great many teachers 
report that the dislike of pupils for school work is a 
common cause of absence in their schools. A pupil's 
dislike for school work may be due to (1) his inability 
to do the work successfully, or (2) his lack of interest 
in the things he is required to study. 

Children cannot be expected to like their school 
work unless they can do fairly well what is expected 
of them. How, for instance, can a pupil like the 
study of arithmetic or of grammar if he cannot solve 
the problems, or parse the words, or analyze the sen- 
tences assigned? There is a real pleasure in achieve- 
ment — in the consciousness that one has done his 
work successfully, while the consciousness of failure is 
disagreeable. When children discover that they can- 
not do their work, they become discouraged from re- 
peated failure and want to drop the subjects that give 
them most trouble. If this is not permitted, they will 
stay out of school on any sort of pretext, and, unless 
forced to attend, will probably drop out permanently. 

Children's inability to do their work results, in some 
instances, from ill health or physical defects. In these 
cases medical inspection will do much to remove the 
difficulty. But in a majority of cases inability is due 
to the improper classification of pupils. When a pu- 
pil is known to be in a grade where the work is too diffi- 
cult for him, he should be re-classified. This can usually 
be accomplished satisfactorily to all concerned if the 
teacher will confer with the pupil's parents and point 



School Attendance 223 

out to them the importance to the child of having him 
in a grade where he can do the work successfully. 
Much of the difficulty that arises from the inability 
of pupils in rural schools would disappear if the subject 
matter they are required to learn were better suited 
to the interests and needs of country children. 

Lack of interest in school work is undoubtedly the 
more common cause of children's dislike for the school. 
The simple truth is that country children are frequently 
not much interested in many of the things they have 
to learn in school. The reasons for this are two. 

First. Some of the material in the course of study 
is of no immediate use to children. It does not help 
them in any way to do the things children enjoy or 
want to do. Until recently children's needs and in- 
terests were not sufficiently emphasized in the making 
of the course of study. Now we have learned that 
the best way to teach a child the things he should know 
and do as an adult is to make use of the things he likes 
to know and do as a child. In schools where this is 
done children do not dislike the school. Neither are 
they often absent, except when it is unavoidable. 

Second. Many of the things taught in rural schools 
do not fall within the range of country children's ex- 
periences. It is a well-known principle of teaching 
that what is to be learned must be related to the ex- 
periences of the learner. Now, as a matter of fact, 
most rural school courses of study are city or town 
courses adopted by country districts. They are there- 
fore lacking, to a considerable extent, in country life 
experiences — in the things that country boys and 
girls know something about. 

There is a need, then, for a course of study and 
methods of teaching for rural schools that place greater 



224 Rural School Management 

emphasis on children's interests and recognize the 
value of country life as the source from which to draw 
the materials of instruction. The outline of the 
course of study given in Chapter IX is one attempt to 
embody these ideas. Some such scheme is recom- 
mended as at least a partial remedy for country chil- 
dren's dislike for the school and the non-attendance to 
which such dislike leads. 

Dislike for the Teacher. It has been found that 
dislike for the teacher frequently causes pupils to re- 
main away from the school. 

There can be no doubt that the teacher is an impor- 
tant factor in the attendance problem. A dislike for 
the teacher may result from matters of discipline or 
from a disrespect due to the teacher's lack of skill in 
teaching. It is too much to expect that any teacher 
can always please all of his pupils. There are, however, 
a few things very important in this connection, that 
any teacher can easily attain. In matters of discipline 
he can be just and firm. He can take an interest in 
children and an active part in their plays and games. 
He can set a good example of self-control and orderli- 
ness. He can be kind, sympathetic, and helpful. 
Investigations have shown that children, as a rule, 
admire rather than dislike these qualities in their 
teacher. The teacher who exercises these virtues in 
his dealings with pupils is not likely to incur their ill 
will or cause any of them to leave school on account 
of discipline. 

On the side of skill in teaching, the greatest weak- 
nesses of teachers are lack of scholarship and poor 
methods. Every teacher should have a fairly thor- 
ough knowledge of the subjects he teaches. Such 
scholarship begets confidence and esteem, while the 



School Attendance 225 

lack of it breeds indifference and disrespect on the part 
of pupils. In addition to this, the teacher should 
know how to teach these subjects so that children can 
understand them and will be interested in them. With 
the wealth of books, magazines, and other helps for 
rural teachers now available, any one with reasonable 
energy and enthusiasm can easily acquire these qualifi- 
cations. 

Unattractive and Uncomfortable School Environ- 
ment. The influence of an unattractive schoolhouse 
and grounds has been discussed in a previous chapter. 
An uncomfortable schoolhouse is also a hindrance to 
regularity of attendance. Pupils have been known to 
stay away from school because the room was not prop- 
erly heated. In some rural schools such conditions 
as open floors and broken window panes make it im- 
possible to keep the room comfortable in cold weather. 
In other instances the janitor, or the teacher if he 
serves as janitor, fails to start the fire early enough 
to have the building warm when the children arrive 
at the school. All such matters should be corrected 
as promptly as possible. The school board should be 
called upon to make all needed repairs in the building, 
and the janitor should be required to have the room 
clean and warm in ample time every morning to re- 
ceive the earliest comers. 

Ill Health. Dr. Luther H. Gulick, one of our best 
authorities on child welfare, in writing on the question 
of why children leave school, says that sixteen per cent 
of all the children who drop out of school before gradu- 
ating do so because of ill health. Every child right- 
fully belongs to the school until he has graduated. It is, 
therefore, the school's duty to prevent his dropping out 
or to reclaim him, if possible, after he has dropped out. 



226 Rural School Management 

An adequate system of medical inspection, a hy- 
gienic school environment, and a general health cam- 
paign, such as are described in earlier chapters (Chap- 
ters IV and V) will do a great deal to eliminate the 
absences that are due to ill health and physical defects. 

Summary. The chief hindrances to regularity of school at- 
tendance are : (1) the indifference of parents ; (2) children being 
kept out of school to work; (3) dislike of children for the school 
due to (a) inability to do the work required, and (6) lack of interest 
in the studies ; (4) dislike for the teacher ; (5) uncomfortable and 
unattractive school surroundings ; (6) ill health. 

m. HOW TO IMPROVE SCHOOL ATTENDANCE 

Attendance at school is far from being what it ought 
to be. Statistics show that the number of pupils 
in actual attendance varies (1913) from fifty-five per 
cent in some states to eight-four per cent in "other 
states, of the number enrolled. If we add to the 
number of non-attendants those boys and girls who 
ought to be in school but who are not enrolled, the figures 
become still more startling. There is clearly a pressing 
need for ways and means of improving this situation. 

It is impossible, perhaps, to get all of the children 
in any district to attend school all of the time. 
Nevertheless, there are some methods which have 
been used with success in reducing the amount of 
non-attendance. 

Compulsory Attendance Law. Compulsory attend- 
ance laws probably constitute the most widely used 
method of attempting to bring about regularity of 
attendance. These are laws which require that every 
child in the district between certain ages shall attend 
the school unless he has certain specified reasons for 
being absent. 



School Attendance 227 

These laws have done a great deal to bring about a 
better school attendance, particularly in town and city 
schools. In rural districts, however, in some states 
at least, they have not given altogether satisfactory 
results. One of the chief difficulties seems to lie in 
the method of enforcement. The towns and cities 
are usually permitted, under the attendance law, to 
have a special official known as the truant officer, 
who is appointed for the specific purpose of enforcing 
the law. It is his business to find out what children 
are not in school and why they are absent, and to see 
that they are sent to school unless they have a lawful 
reason for being out. But in rural districts the en- 
forcement of the law is usually laid upon officials, such 
as the county superintendent of schools or the prose- 
cuting attorney, who have a great many other duties 
to perform. Experience seems to show that the law 
is most effective when its enforcement is placed in the 
hands of an officer who is appointed to his position 
and who is held responsible for that special duty. 

Another difficulty with the attendance law, in some 
states, is the fact that the number of years of attend- 
ance required of a child is less than the number re- 
quired to complete the eight grades. In a few of the 
states, for instance, a child is required to attend school 
only four years ; in others, six years ; in still others, 
seven years. It is perfectly clear that in such cases 
a child may comply with the attendance law and 
still not have as much education as he needs for the 
purposes of good citizenship. Since graduation from 
the eighth grade represents the least amount of train- 
ing that any child should have, there ought to be some 
means of holding country boys and girls in school until 
they have attained this end. 



228 Rural School Management 

Another point needs noting in this connection. 
When it becomes necessary to enforce the law, it usu- 
ally arouses an ill will on the part of the parent toward 
the school. Often, too, though by no means always, 
the children do not have the right attitude toward the 
school. Occasionally, encouraged by the attitude of 
their parents, they become trouble makers in the school. 
The law may compel a child to go to school, but it does 
not require that he shall learn. It would probably be 
better if the law did require the completion of a certain 
number of grades rather than mere attendance for a cer- 
tain number of years. Then there would be a strong 
inducement for the child to learn as rapidly as possible. 

These criticisms of the compulsory attendance law 
are not intended to imply that it should not be enforced. 
There are two reasons for calling attention to these 
points. First, to emphasize the need of certain changes 
in the attendance law to make it more effective in 
accomplishing the end for which it is intended ; namely, 
the guaranteeing to every child an elementary educa- 
tion. When teachers understand these matters they 
can be more instrumental in bringing about the changes 
needed. Second, to point out the importance of using 
all other means of getting children to attend school 
before invoking the aid of the attendance law. We 
have already learned that the school needs the good 
will, interest, and cooperation of all of its patrons. 
Again, better results can be obtained if the children 
are drawn or attracted to the school through friendly 
means. But when all other methods fail, the attend- 
ance law should be rigidly enforced. 

Apportionment of School Funds. In some states 
the method of apportioning the state school funds is 
used as a means of bringing about a better attendance 



School Attendance 229 

at school. One of the principal sources of school 
money is the income from the permanent state school 
fund. The usual method of apportioning this income 
is to divide it among the various districts in proportion 
to the number of children of school age. The total 
amount of the income is divided by the total number of 
children of school age in the state. This gives the 
amount to be apportioned for each child, and this 
amount multiplied by the number of children enu- 
merated in the district gives that district's share of 
the funds. 

It will be observed that this method of apportioning 
the funds takes no account of the actual attendance 
in the schools. Each district shares in the funds in 
proportion to the number of children enumerated, re- 
gardless of whether the children are in or out of school. 
In a few states now the apportionment is made on the 
basis of actual attendance. The total income is di- 
vided by the total number of days attended by all 
pupils. This gives the amount to be allowed for 
each day's attendance. A district's share of the fund 
is found by multiplying the amount per day by the 
total number of days attended by all of the pupils in 
the district. It will be seen that this method makes 
it financially important for a district to have a good 
attendance record. The better the attendance, the 
larger will be the district's share of the state funds 
and, consequently, the lower the local tax levy neces- 
sary to run the school. Under this plan school boards 
and taxpayers usually get interested in the matter of 
school attendance and do what they can to give their 
district the best record possible. 

Parent-Teacher Associations. The indifference of 
parents has been found to be one of the serious hin- 



230 Rural School Management 

drances to regularity of school attendance. The 
parent-teacher association offers one of the best means 
of overcoming this difficulty. It gives publicity to 
the school and awakens a widespread interest in its 
work. Indifferent patrons catch the school spirit 
from their interested neighbors and from being asked 
to help in matters pertaining to the school. Teacher 
and patrons become better acquainted and a tie of 
mutual interest and helpfulness is established. 

How the teacher may get a parent-teacher associ- 
ation formed in his district is stated in Chapter II, 
and hence need not be repeated here. 

Attendance Contests. Some teachers have been 
able to reduce non-attendance in their schools by 
means of attendance contests. These are of two 
types: (1) contests between different classes in the 
same school, and (2) contests between two or more 
schools. 

Interclass Contests. This method consists of work- 
ing up a race between different classes in the school 
to see which can have the best attendance record for 
a given period, usually a month. The plan works well 
in schools where the classes are fairly large. Gen- 
erally some sort of recognition, such as possession of 
a banner, is given the winning class. Usually the chil- 
dren get very much interested in such a race. Care 
must be taken to prevent the development of an un- 
friendly class spirit, or the tendency on the part of 
pupils to rejoice in the absence of members of rival 
classes. This can usually be done by emphasizing the 
ideas of fair play and true sportsmanship at all times. 

Interschool Contests. These are similar contests 
between two or n%ore schools. The following incident 
illustrates one method of conducting them. 



School Attendance 231 

Two teachers who had been close friends in school 
were employed to teach in different parts of the state. 
Shortly after their terms opened they instituted an 
attendance contest between the two schools. The 
matter was explained to the pupils, emphasis being 
placed on the importance of getting all of the children 
in the district to attend school every day. The chil- 
dren in both schools entered heartily into the race. 
Pupils were not only eager to be present themselves, 
they were anxious to see all the others present. In 
some instances, pupils visited the homes of those who 
were absent to find out why they were out of school. 
Careful records of the attendance were kept, and these 
were exchanged by the teachers and announced to the 
pupils in both schools at the end of each month. No 
prizes or rewards of any sort were offered. It was 
merely a friendly race to see which school could have 
the better attendance record at the end of the term. 
The results in both schools were a somewhat larger 
enrollment and a considerably higher average daily 
attendance than were usual in those schools. 

Making the School Interesting. Undoubtedly one 
of the best means of improving school attendance is 
to make the school more interesting to children. If 
children really wanted to attend school, a larger num- 
ber of them would find a way to do so than is the case 
at present in many of our rural schools. The school 
which makes the strongest appeal to children is, as a 
rule, the one which is troubled least with non-attend- 
ance. Three things are necessary to make the school 
one of this type : (1) It must be comfortable and at- 
tractive : (2) it must make provision for the exercise 
of the social instincts of children and young people; 
(3) its class work must be interesting and worth while. 



232 Rural School Management 

Comfortable and Attractive School Surroundings. 

This matter is treated at considerable length in an- 
other chapter (Chapter VI). The only reason for re- 
ferring to it here is to emphasize its importance in 
relation to school attendance. Our best business men 
understand and apply this principle. The successful 
merchant, for instance, keeps his store comfortable, 
neat, and attractive at all times. He understands that 
these conditions tend to draw customers, while the 
lack of them has the opposite effect. We teachers need 
to understand clearly that a cold, bleak, and barren 
school, or one that is run down and unsightly, does not 
have so strong a hold on children as the school should 
have. Many of them will prefer to remain at home or 
go to a school that presents a more inviting appearance. 
Social Activities in the School. Children and young 
people are by nature social beings. They enjoy as- 
sociation with others of their own age. They like to 
play and work together, to talk to and help each other. 
The best opportunities that country children have 
for the exercise of these social interests are those af- 
forded by the school. And yet the tendency in most 
of our schools has been to repress, rather than to en- 
courage and develop, this aspect of children's nature. 
There are three ways in which the school can, and in 
which many do, make provision for the exercise of these 
instincts : (1) by providing adequate play facilities, 
such facilities, for instance, as those described in 
Chapter VII ; (2) by permitting pupils, under proper 
conditions, to work together and help each other in 
their studies ; (3) by forming student organizations in 
the school, such as health militias, literary societies, 
musical clubs, etc. This is one of the functions of the 
boys' and girls' clubs described in a later chapter. 



School Attendance 233 

Interesting Class Work. The third factor in mak- 
ing the school life of pupils enjoyable lies in making 
their regular class work both interesting and profitable. 
To this end the course of study for rural schools is 
being enriched and the methods of teaching improved. 
In our best rural schools now the larger boys and 
girls are finding real pleasure in the study of litera- 
ture, music, the leading present-day industries, agri- 
culture, and the social conditions and civic matters 
pertaining to their own community and state. In the 
manual training and domestic science classes, they 
are making the things they need or want, and inci- 
dentally they are acquiring a mastery of tools, uten- 
sils, and processes that will be useful in the future. 
For the younger pupils, there are nature study, plays 
and games, the telling and dramatizing of stories they 
like, and the making of things they want either for 
themselves or to give to some one else — all of which 
they find extremely interesting. In addition to, and 
in connection with these, the children are learning to 
read, to write, to spell, and to compute with numbers. 
These subjects, too, are interesting because they are 
taught in such a way that the children need and use 
them in doing the things they like to do. 

If the school has these three characteristics, there is 
certainly very little in it to which children could be 
averse. If it is comfortable and attractive, if it affords 
opportunities for children to play and work together 
and to associate in some organized way with each 
other, if its class work is useful or enjoyable, children 
will prefer being in school to being absent. 

Personal Work by the Teacher. Personal work by 
the teacher is another excellent method of preventing 
non-attendance. The things which seem to be most 



234 Rural School Management 

effective are the writing of notes to absent pupils, and 
visiting the homes to see why the children are absent. 

One teacher adopted the plan of sending a friendly 
little note to every pupil who was out of school for more 
than a day or two. The letter was a simple, frank 
statement that the teacher was sorry the pupil was 
obliged to be out of school, that he was missed by both 
the teacher and the other pupils, and that they all 
hoped he would soon be able to return to school. The 
result in almost every case was that the pupil was 
back in school at the earliest possible date. Whether 
the child has learned to read does not matter. The 
parents will always read the note and, in a vast major- 
ity of cases, will be greatly pleased with the teacher's 
interest in their child. One of the surest methods of 
establishing one's self in the esteem of the parents is 
to take a genuine interest in their children. A per- 
sonal note addressed to the pupil, in most cases, will 
convince both the child and his parents of the teacher's 
interest and will nearly always result in the pupil's 
returning to school. 

Personal visits to the homes of absent pupils have 
been found very effective in preventing the with- 
drawal of the larger boys and girls. An incident or 
two will serve to illustrate this method of personal 
work by teachers. 

On one occasion a country boy quit school about six 
weeks before the end of the term. On the evening of 
the third day of his absence the teacher called at his 
home. After a brief friendly conversation with the 
parents he stated the purpose of his visit ; namely, to 
see why William was out of school. The father re- 
plied that William was present and could answer for 
himself. Whereupon the teacher turned to the boy 



School Attendance 235 

and said : *' William, we miss you at school. We are 
planning to have an entertainment at the close of 
school and need you to help us. Won't you come 
back to school, finish up your work, and help in the 
entertainment? " The ideas of being ''missed " and 
'' needed " at school were new to both the boy and 
his parents. After the teacher's departure, his visit 
and the school were the topics of conversation in 
that home for the remainder of the evening, and the 
boy was in school again the next day. 

In another instance, a young woman was teaching 
her first school. About the middle of the term five of 
her largest pupils quit school. The teacher was 
genuinely sorry to lose these pupils, and decided to 
make an effort to get them to return to school. Ac- 
cordingly she went to their homes. She explained to 
the parents in each case that if the child left school at 
that time, he could not be promoted and would, there- 
fore, have to remain in the same grade another year. 
The outcome of the visits was that three of the five 
pupils returned to the school, completed the year's 
work, and were promoted with their respective classes. 
The state rural school inspector learned of the inci- 
dent and used the facts in his lectures to teachers to 
illustrate what rural teachers can do through personal 
work to reduce the amount of non-attendance in their 
schools. 

Other Means. The consolidation of schools, boys' 
and girls' clubs, and social center work are other 
means of improving school attendance which should 
be mentioned in this connection. But these are 
fraught with so much importance to the school in va- 
rious ways that they are treated at length in later 
chapters. 



236 Rural School Management 

Summary. There is a pressing need for the improvement of 
school attendance. Some of the means that may be used to this 
end are: (1) the enforcement of the compulsory attendance 
law; (2) apportioning state school funds on the basis of actual 
attendance rather than on the number of pupils enumerated; 
(3) the forming of parent- teacher associations; (4) attendance 
contests either between classes in the same school or between 
different schools ; (5) making the school more interesting by (a) 
making it comfortable and attractive, (6) providing wholesome 
exercise for the social instincts of pupils, and (c) making the class 
work interesting and profitable ; and (6) personal work on the part 
of the teacher. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Bagley : Classroom Management, Chapter V. 

GULICK : Why 250,000 Children Quit School. 

U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 2. Compulsory 

School Attendance, pp. 7-77. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. Why is it important to the state that every child have at 
least an elementary education? Give specific reasons. 

2. Compute the economic loss to your school district by 
finding the ratio of the average daily attendance to the number 
of pupils who ought to be in school ; that is, the number enumer- 
ated exclusive of the deaf and dumb, the blind, the feeble-minded, 
and those who have graduated or married. 

3. Give instances from your own observation of pupils who 
(a) failed of promotion, and (6) quit school, because of absence 
from school. What were the causes of the absence in each case? 

4. Add to the list of causes of absence given in the text any 
others which you have known to keep pupils out of school. 

5. What provision is made in your district for the education 
of children whose parents are too poor to send them to school? 

6. State clearly the provisions of the compulsory attendance 
law in your state. To what extent is it enforced in your district? 

7. Give arguments for and against placing the enforcement 
of the attendance law in the hands of an elective officer. 

8. If you can find from your state superintendent's report 
the total amount of state school funds to be apportioned, the 



School Attendance 237 

total school enumeration, and the total number of days attended 
by all pupils, compute your district's share of the funds on the 
basis (a) of enumeration, (b) of actual attendance. 

9. What methods of improving school attendance are being 
employed in your school? Which of the methods named in the 
text do you consider most practicable? Most impracticable? 
Give your reasons in each case. 

10. Prepare a complete outline of the chapter. 



CHAPTER XI 
SCHOOL INCENTIVES 

I. FUNCTIONS OF SCHOOL INCENTIVES 

In the last chapter we tried to find out why children 
should attend school regularly and how they may be 
induced to do so. Logically, the next step in our 
study is to see how we may get them to do their school 
work in the most effective manner. This brings us to 
a study of school incentives. 

Meaning of Incentives. By the term incentive we 
mean the reason or motive one has for performing a 
certain action, or the object one desires to attain 
through the action. All of our actions, except those 
that are reflex or habitual, are prompted by some in- 
centive. The desire to be well, for instance, is the in- 
centive for calling a physician or taking medicine when 
one is sick. A young lady's desire to have her new 
dress conform to the prevailing fashion is her incentive 
for consulting the latest style books and magazines. 
As applied to school work, an incentive is the desire or 
motive or object that causes the pupil to study. A 
pupil may study his language lesson either to get the 
information he needs in writing a letter to a friend, or 
to please his teacher, or to escape being kept after school. 
In the first case, the incentive is the pupil's desire to 
write his letter correctly; in the second, it is his de- 
sire for approval ; while in the third, it is fear of pun- 

238 



School Incentives 239 

ishment. In any case, whatever it is that causes the 
pupil to prepare his lessons, constitutes his incentive 
to study. 

To Arouse Interest in Study. From the foregoing 
illustrations it is seen that the primary function of an 
incentive is to arouse such an interest as will lead to 
action. In school, the action desired is the studying 
of the lessons assigned. Pupils must have an incen- 
tive of some sort, else they will have no interest, no 
desire, no motive, to cause them to study. Conse- 
quently, their lessons will not be learned. It is a rule 
of life that the stronger one's incentive is, the deeper 
will be his interest and the harder he will work to at- 
tain the desired end. The same rule applies in school. 
The secret of getting pupils to study diligently, there- 
fore, lies in providing them with strong incentives to 
study. 

To Aid in Discipline. A second function of incen- 
tives is to help maintain good order in the school. 
Good incentives constitute one of the very best aids 
to school discipline. Much of the disorder that arises 
in school is due to idleness and the disinclination of 
pupils to study. Good incentives give pupils an in- 
terest in, and a motive for, doing their school work, 
and thereby serve to keep them profitably employed on 
their school tasks. When pupils are thus engaged, 
they are not likely to have either time or inclination to 
do the things that make for bad order in the school. 
The result is not only better order but a better attitude 
in general toward the school. 

Summary. School incentives are the desires, the motives, the 
aims, which prompt pupils to do their school work. They have 
two main functions : (1) to arouse an interest in study, and (2) to 
aid in the discipline of the school. 



240 Rural School Management 



II. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

How to provide pupils with proper incentives to 
study is regarded as one of the most difficult problems 
encountered by the teacher. The chief sources of this 
difficulty, in the case of most teachers, lie in their 
lack of sufficient knowledge of (1) the purposes or 
functions of school subjects, and (2) the direct or 
immediate interests of school children. 

Functions of School Subjects. When we raise the 
question of how to get pupils to study, we imply that 
they ought to study. There are, to be sure, good 
reasons why children should study most or all of the 
subjects usually taught in the schools. But if we were 
to ask teachers to tell us why the pupils should study 
any particular subject, perhaps only a comparatively 
small number could give any definite reason. The 
only reason that would be given in many cases is that 
the subject has been taught in the schools for a long 
time and it is still customary to teach it. But we 
believe now that mere tradition is not a sufficient rea- 
son for teaching any subject. Unless a subject serves 
some purpose that makes it worth while for children to 
learn it, we think now that it ought to be left out of 
the course of study altogether. Some of our leading 
educators have given this question of the functions of 
school subjects very careful study. They tell us that 
subject matter has two kinds of functions. One of 
these is the purpose for which it is used outside of 
school, that is, by people in general in the affairs of 
everyday life. This is called its intrinsic function. 
For instance, people in general use arithmetic to make 
the number computations that are necessary from day 
to day in the course of their business or other affairs. 



School Incentives 241 

This ability to make number computations, then, is 
the intrinsic function of arithmetic. But the study 
of arithmetic may serve other purposes besides. It 
may aid in the development or training of the reason- 
ing powers, or it may prepare one for the study of al- 
gebra, or it may cause one to be regarded by other 
people as being educated or refined. These, and, in 
fact, any purposes that arithmetic may have besides 
its intrinsic function, are called its indirect functions. 

And so it is with all of the subjects in the course of 
study. They have an intrinsic function and one or 
more indirect functions. But a great many teachers 
do not know as well as they should what the functions, 
especially the intrinsic functions, of the various sub- 
jects are. And herein lies one of the difficulties in 
connection with the use of incentives. In order that 
we may know how best to arouse an interest in a sub- 
ject, it is important that we know what purpose or 
function that subject serves in everyday life. 

Interests of School Children. The primary func- 
tion of a school incentive, as we have seen, is to arouse 
such an interest in children as will lead them to study 
their lessons. Those who have studied the question 
of interest carefully, have pointed out that there are 
two kinds of interest, immediate and mediate. By 
immediate interest is meant an interest in a thing just 
for its own sake — for the sake of the immediate pleas- 
ure it gives. For instance, nearly all children are 
interested in play just because of the pleasure they 
derive from playing. Again, some children are in- 
terested in arithmetic simply because they like it — 
they find pleasure in that sort of activity. When 
children study a subject or a lesson solely because 
they like it, they are said to have an immediate in- 



242 Rural School Management 

terest in it. In such cases there is no difficulty in se- 
curing incentives, for immediate interest is itself a 
sufficient incentive to study. 

But in a great many instances children are not thus 
immediately interested in the things we wish them to 
learn in school. Some pupils do not like history, some 
do not like geography, others are not interested in 
grammar, and so on. In these cases it becomes 
necessary to arouse an interest in the uninteresting 
subject. This is done by connecting it with some- 
thing in which the pupils are already interested. A 
pupil who is not interested in numbers, for instance, 
may become interested in them when he needs the 
number facts to see who wins in a game of bean bag 
or marbles. Most pupils like to make good grades. 
This desire may be used to arouse an interest in 
any subject which is not directly interesting to the 
pupil. Interest thus aroused is said to be mediate. 

It is in connection with interest of the mediate type 
that the difficulties of providing incentives arise. 
What incentives can we use to arouse an interest in 
subjects or lessons that are not directly interesting? 
To answer this question we need to know (1) what the 
interests of children are — what immediate interests 
children in general have that can be used as incentives, 
and (2) which of these should be cultivated and devel- 
oped and which, if any, should be inhibited or repressed. 
These matters most of us do not understand as well 
as we should. 

Furthermore, we ought to be more familiar than we 
are with the individual differences in the interests of 
school children. Parents and educators have learned 
that there are marked differences in children with 
respect to their interests. They have observed, for 



School Incentives 243 

instance, that some children are sensitive while others 
are indifferent to reproof ; that some are eager to make 
good grades while others are not interested in grades 
at all; that some are very much interested in the 
opinion their teacher, parents, and classmates have of 
their work while others do not care for such things. 
Nearly all teachers have noticed that some children 
are most deeply interested in arithmetic, that others 
prefer the study of grammar, while still others like the 
study of history best of all. It is clear, therefore, that 
an incentive which may be effective with one child 
may fail with another. 

In order to make the wisest use of school incentives, 
then, we ought to know (1) the immediate interests of 
children in general — things most children like to do ; 
(2) the immediate interests of each child ; and (3) which 
of these interests may be used and which should not 
be used as incentives. 

Summary. The problem of providing proper school incentives 
is a difficult one for the reason that we do not know as well as we 
should (1) the functions of the subjects we teach, and (2) the 
things in which children are immediately interested. If a pupil 
is immediately interested in the study of a subject, his interest 
is an incentive to study it ; if he is not interested, then a mediate 
interest must be aroused by connecting the study of the subject 
with something in which he is immediately interested. 

iii. how to secure incentives for study 
1. The Classification of Incentives 

An adequate study of the problem we have under 
consideration here requires, first, that we shall dis- 
tinguish between the different kinds of incentives. 
Nearly all of the writers on school management propose 
some sort of a scheme of classification. A few of these 



244 Rural School Management 

schemes are presented and discussed in the present 
section. 

Positive and Negative Incentives. Some writers, 
notably Bagley and Colgrove, divide all school incen- 
tives into two main classes; namely, positive and 
negative. By a positive incentive they mean one that 
induces study because of the pleasurableness of the 
end or result that is to follow. The fundamental idea 
is that of being rewarded in some way for study. Study- 
ing in order to win a prize or get a good grade is an 
illustration. The list of positive incentives, as given 
by Bagley,^ is as follows : 

(A) Incentives that make a positive appeal to the instinct of 
emulation. 

(1) Competitive prizes of intrinsic value. 

(2) Competitive prizes not intrinsically valuable. 

(3) Privileges. 

(4) Immunities. 

(5) Display of pupils' work. 

(6) Grades, marks, and promotion. 

(B) Incentives that make a positive appeal to the social instincts. 

(1) Praise, commendation, and adulation. 

(2) Pupils' pride in the good name of the school. 

(C) Ideals as incentives. 

Negative incentives, according to these authors, are 
those that stimulate pupils to study as a means of 
escaping something more disagreeable than studying. 
The fundamental idea here is that of coercion — of 
having to study or suffer for faihng to do so. The 
various forms of punishment, such as scolding, de- 
motion, being kept after school, etc., are the incentives 
of this class. 

The chief difficulty with this classification lies in its 
failure to recognize or emphasize the intrinsic use 
^ Classroom Management, p. 169. 



School Incentives 245 

or function of subject matter as an incentive for study- 
ing it. The fear of punishment, the desire to win a 
prize or get a goo^ grade, the love of praise — in fact, 
all of the incentives named in the foregoing list, are 
alike in that the end or desire which prompts the study 
is not the intrinsic function or purpose of study. They 
are mere devices to get pupils to learn something. It 
is assumed, of course, that the things they learn will be 
of use in later life. That some of these incentives may 
be used in school work is not to be denied. In fact, 
they must be used in many of our schools. The crit- 
icism we are making is that there are other incentives 
that may be used. Our best courses of study now 
contain a great deal of material that is, or can be made, 
of immediate use to children in doing the things they 
want to do, and their need for this material can be used 
as an incentive to get them to study it. 

Natural and Artificial Incentives. According to an- 
other classification, school incentives fall into two 
groups known as natural and artificial. An incentive 
is said to be natural when the object or thing desired 
results naturally from the activity that it stimulates. 
To illustrate, suppose a pupil desires a good standing 
in school. This, it is claimed, is a natural incentive 
to study, since the thing desired (a good standing) 
results naturally from study. Again, suppose a pupil 
desires to attain a high degree of self-control. This 
desire is held to be a natural incentive to study, be- 
cause self-control is supposed to result from study. 

On the other hand, if the studying is done to win a 
prize or secure some privilege, the incentive is said to 
be artificial, because these prizes or privileges are not 
the natural result of study. That is, there is no natural 
relation or connection between the prizes or privileges 



246 Rural School Management 

and studying. An artificial incentive, therefore, is 
one in which the thing desired is not the natural out- 
come or consequence of the action which it arouses. 

The more common school incentives, according to 
White,! one of the foremost advocates of this classifi- 
cation, are as follows, beginning with the artificial : 



ARTIFICIAL INCENTIVES 

1. Prizes: Medals, books, class honors, merit tickets, etc. 

2. Privileges: Holidays, early dismissal from school, "honor 
seats," positions as monitors, etc. 

3. Immunities : Exemptions from tasks, class exercises, etc. 



NATURAL INCENTIVES 

1. A desire for (1) success, (2) good standing, (3) excellence, etc. 

2. A desire for (1) approbation, including that of equals, 
superiors, one's self, and God; (2) esteem; (3) honor, etc. 

3. A desire for knowledge, including that which is useful 
(1) in acquiring other knowledge, (2) for guidance, (3) for en- 
joyment, etc. 

4. A desire for (1) activity, (2) power — mental, moral, and 
physical, (3) skill, (4) efficiency, (5) freedom from imperfections, 
etc. 

5. A desire for (1) self-conduct, including self-control (negative) 
and self-direction (positive) ; (2) self -approval ; (3) self-respect, etc. 

6. A desire for future good, including (1) usefulness, (2) in- 
fluence, (3) well-being, (4) freedom from want, discomfort, de- 
pendence on others, etc. 

7. A sense of (1) honor, (2) right, (3) duty, (4) demerit, 
(5) shame, etc. 

This classification of incentives appears to be open 
to two criticisms. In the first place, this scheme, as 
does the former one, fails to take account of the definite, 
specific uses of subject matter — the purposes it serves 

^School Management, pp. 132 and 150-151. 



School Incentives 247 

in everyday life — as incentives for its study. The 
distinction between natural and artificial incentives 
is, in reality, a difference of value or rank rather than 
of kind. There is no fundamental difference, for 
instance, between studying in order to gain approba- 
tion or self-control and studying to win a prize or a 
privilege. True, the incentives listed under the term 
''natural" are higher, more worthy motives than are 
those called artificial. But in both cases the ends or 
objects named are extrinsic, that is, different from the 
ends or purposes for which people ordinarily study. 
It is perfectly proper, and in some cases necessary, as 
we shall see later, to use some of the incentives enu- 
merated. But we shall also see that there are others 
which may be used with equally good, if not better, 
results. 

The second criticism is that the list of natural in- 
centives includes many that are not effective with most 
children of school age. Take, for instance, the desire 
for self-control. There are certainly very few pupils 
who are prompted to study their lessons diligently from 
a conscious desire to acquire self-mastery. Again, 
the desire for future good is not very strong with 
children, especially those in the primary and interme- 
diate grades. One of the greatest difficulties in teaching 
arises from just this fact that children in the lower grades 
are not conscious of their future needs. This inability 
of children in general to foresee the needs of later life 
or to be affected by the thought of their future wel- 
fare, constitutes one of the main reasons why we 
have to search for school incentives. A desire for 
skill, efficiency, and freedom from imperfections; a 
desire for knowledge that is useful in acquiring other 
knowledge and for guidance; a sense of honor and 



248 Rural School Management 

duty — these are other incentives that are not, as a 
rule, very strong in school children. These are quali- 
ties which the school ought to try to develop, but, in 
doing so, it must begin with incentives that make a 
stronger appeal to children. 

Specific and Generic Incentives. A classification 
which seems to overcome the objections we have 
urged against those already considered is found in the 
one which classifies incentives as specific and generic. 
This is the classification which we shall follow in our 
further study, and the reasons for adopting it will 
appear as we proceed. 

Summary. The first step in learning how to secure school 
incentives is to distinguish between the different kinds. One 
classification divides them into positive and negative classes; 
another into natural and artificial. The chief difficulty with 
both of these classifications is that they omit those incentives 
which appeal to children because of the specific ways subject 
matter helps them to do the things they want to do. What seems 
to be a better classification is to regard incentives as specific and 
generic. 

2. Use of Specific Incentives 

Meaning of Specific Incentives. Illustrations from 
Everyday Life. A specific incentive is one which 
arouses an interest in a thing or a subject because of 
its intrinsic use or function. The intrinsic function 
of a thing, as we have seen, is the use people make of 
it in everyday life. The intrinsic function of a rail- 
road time-table, for instance, is to tell people the 
time of arrival and departure of trains at certain places. 
Now, if a person is planning to take a trip on the 
railroad, he needs to know at what time the train leaves 
his home station, when it will arrive at his destination, 



School Incentives 249 

and what transfers or '' connections " he will have to 
make on the way. The desire for this knowledge con- 
stitutes a specific incentive for consulting the time- 
tables. Again, the intrinsic function of the market 
reports in newspapers is to tell those who wish to sell 
or buy certain products the prices that are being paid 
in the leading market centers. When a farmer has 
some grain or live stock or other farm products to sell, 
he very naturally wants to know what prices are being 
paid for such commodities. This desire is a specific 
incentive for looking up the prices in the market re- 
ports in his newspaper. Still further, wholesale and 
mail order houses send out catalogues whose intrinsic 
function is to tell people what these merchants have 
for sale and the price they ask for each article offered. 
Now, if one is in need of some article of merchandise 
which he cannot or does not wish to buy from his local 
merchant, he turns to a catalogue to see if it is listed 
there and, if so, at what price it can be bought. Here, 
then, is a specific incentive for referring to the cata- 
logue. Thus we see that a specific incentive arises 
when one feels a need for a thing for the very purpose 
for which it is generally used. 

Illustrations from School Subjects. Each one of 
the subjects usually taught in school has its intrinsic 
function. The function of arithmetic, for instance, is 
to help people make number computations correctly 
in those situations in which a need for numbers arises. 
The function of reading is to enable us to find out for 
ourselves, or interpret, thoughts that have been put 
down in print or in writing, and (of oral reading) to 
impart to others these same thoughts in the language 
of the writer. The function of language study is to 
tell us how to state clearly and effectively, either orally 



250 Rural School Management 

or in writing, the things we want to say. The function 
of spelling is to show us how to put letters together to 
form the words we need when we wish to write our 
thoughts. And so it is with each of the other subjects 

— each serves to help us in some specific way to do 
what we want to do. 

Many of our leading educators now hold that one of 
the best ways to get pupils interested in a subject is 
to take advantage of, or create, a situation in which 
they need the subject matter for its intrinsic function 

— that is, for the purpose for which it is generally used. 
If we wish to get pupils interested in arithmetic, one of 
the best methods is to find something they want to do 
that requires the handling of numbers. When pupils 
want to make something they need, or find who has the 
highest score in a game, they have an interest in, a 
specific incentive for, making the measurements or 
adding the numbers involved. Again, we can easily 
interest a pupil in reading if we can make the getting 
of the thought necessary to him as a means of doing 
something he wants to do. A boy once went to the 
library to get a book on how to pitch a spit ball. Here 
was something he wanted to do, and the reading of this 
book was the means of helping him to do it. Needless 
to say, he read it diligently to " get the thought " it 
contained. Similarly, spelling, writing, or language is 
interesting to a child when he needs to know how to 
spell correctly or write legibly or use correct language 
forms in order to say something he wants to say. 

Thus it is seen that specific school incentives arise 
when pupils feel a need for the things they study be- 
cause of the intrinsic purpose they serve. The general 
principle is easily stated. The practical difficulties, 
as we have already learned, lie in our not knowing what 



School Incentives 251 

the intrinsic functions of the various subjects are and 
what immediate interests children have that involve a 
need for the things they study. 

Securing Specific Incentives. In the discussion that 
follows we shall name a few of the immediate interests 
of children with a view to pointing out how they may 
be used to secure specific incentives for the study of 
certain subjects. 

Plays and Games. One of the best-known facts 
of psychology is that all normal children are directly 
interested in play. Here, then, is one opportunity 
for the use of specific incentives. In order to play to 
the best advantage, children really need some knowl- 
edge of numbers. Such games as bean bag, marbles, 
keeping store, and many others that could be named 
involve number facts, and in order to play them chil- 
dren must master those facts. Again, ability to read 
is a great aid to play. Children will read to learn the 
rules for playing new games, how children in other 
lands play, etc. Any reading matter which will help 
children to learn new games or to find out more about 
play, will be interesting, and they will want to be able 
to read it — to '' get the thought " out of it. Further- 
more, pupils will probably want to write to their friends 
in other places about the games they play at school. 
To do this they will need to know, and will want to 
learn, how to write legibly, spell the words correctly, 
etc. 

The play interest, therefore, gives rise to a situation 
in which the pupils really need certain subject matter 
for the specific, intrinsic purpose it serves. And by 
so doing it arouses a deep interest in the subject matter. 
But in addition to the interest aroused, the children 
put the things they learn to actual use in their own 



252 Rural School Management 

experience. This is a very important factor in making 
their knowledge permanent. What a child learns and 
uses because he really needs it, is much more likely to 
be retained than what he learns for some extrinsic 
purpose. 

Handwork. It has been found that practically all 
children like to work with their hands. They like to 
make such things as doll houses and furniture for the 
same; articles to be used as gifts; things they need 
for their own use; paper cuttings, clay models and 
drawings to represent animals, plants, characters in 
stories, etc. ; sand table scenes of the farm, the village, 
Indian life, historical events, etc. But in order to 
get the greatest amount of pleasure from the making 
of such things, they must be able to make measure- 
ments, to draw, to write, and to spell. Methods of 
using handwork to arouse an interest in these and 
other subjects are so well known and widely used that 
they need no further comment here. 

In handwork, as in plays and games, the pupils not 
only want to learn the things that will help them in their 
specific problems, they put the things learned to use 
in the ways in which such things are normally or 
intrinsically used. 

Physical Surroundings. We know now that children 
in general are interested in their physical surroundings 
— in domestic and wild animals, birds, trees, flowers, 
plants, streams, snow, rain, etc. Their interest in 
such things leads pupils to want to know more about 
them and to tell others what they have learned. Here, 
then, is an excellent opportunity to arouse an interest 
in any subject that will help them accomplish these 
ends. The practice of correlating nature study with 
reading, drawing, writing, and oral and written Ian- 



School Incentives 253 

guage is already fairly widespread. The result of such 
correlation is that both the nature study and the other 
subjects are made more interesting and greatly enriched. 

Other Interests. We have now named a few of the 
immediate interests of children that are being used by 
many teachers as a means of arousing interest in cer- 
tain school subjects. Our discussion of these will 
serve to illustrate a method by which a feeling of need 
for certain subject matter may be employed as a specific 
incentive to study. 

Among the many other interests that may be, and 
are being, similarly used, two are worthy of special 
mention : (1) interest in stories — an excellent basis 
for the teaching of reading, writing, drawing, and 
language, for each of these is needed by the pupil to 
enable him to get the most pleasure from the reading 
and telling of stories he likes; (2) interest in the ac- 
tivities of people — social, political, and industrial. 
A child's interest in an industry, such as lumbering, for 
instance, may be used to stimulate a deep interest in 
reading, geography, arithmetic, and any other sub- 
ject that is necessary to enable him to learn all he 
wants to know about the industry. He will want to 
read about the logging camp, how the logs are trans- 
ported to the sawmills, how they are cut into lumber ; 
he will want to know where the forests are, where the 
sawmills are located and why, and how the lumber 
gets from the mills to his local lumber yard ; he will 
be interested in solving problems that involve the 
wages of the lumbermen, the cost of sawing the logs, 
the freight charges for transporting the lumber, and 
the price of lumber at the local yard. Each subject is 
interesting to the pupil because, through its intrinsic 
function, it helps him to find out what he wants to know. 



254 Rural School Management 

Summary. A specific incentive is a feeling of need for a thing 
(or a subject) which, by reason of its intrinsic function, aids one 
in doing what he wants to do. To use a specific incentive in 
connection with a school subject, we must first find out what 
the intrinsic function of the subject is and then connect it with 
something the pupils like to do so that it will be used for its in- 
trinsic purpose. Among the immediate interests of children 
with which certain subjects may be thus connected are: plays 
and games, handwork, interest in physical surroundings, story 
interest, and interest in the activities of people. Specific incen- 
tives arouse an interest in and lead pupils to use the things they 
learn, thus aiding the retention of the subject matter. 



3. Use of Generic Incentives 

It should be recalled here that we have grouped 
school incentives into two classes — specific and 
generic. Specific incentives, such as we have de- 
scribed, are now very generally regarded as the best 
means of getting children to study. However, it is 
not possible at present to use such incentives in all 
cases. There are, no doubt, a great many things in 
the course of study that pupils ought to learn but for 
which it is extremely difficult to create a feeling of 
need. In such cases we must resort to other means 
of arousing interest, namely, generic incentives. 

Meaning of Generic Incentives. If the reason or 
motive which prompts a pupil to study applies to a 
particular subject or assignment and involves the in- 
trinsic use of the subject matter, the incentive, as we 
have seen, is a specific one. But if the motive is a 
general one ; that is, if it applies equally well to all or 
to a large number of subjects, it is called a generic 
incentive. For instance, if the reason that prompts 
the pupil to study is his desire to get a good grade, 
the motive applies to all subjects alike. He will want 



School Incentives 255 

good grades in all of the subjects he studies. Or, if 
the reason for studying is to please the teacher, or to 
escape punishment, or to be promoted, the motive 
works as well in one subject as in another. It stimu- 
lates study in all of the subjects. A generic incentive, 
then, is one which applies equally well to all of the 
subjects a pupil studies. 

Common Generic Incentives. Among the incentives 
of this type the following are, or have been, most widely 
used as school incentives: desire for approval, school 
exhibits, promotions, grades, privileges, immunities, 
punishment, and prizes. 

Desire for Approval. Next to the use of specific 
incentives, one of the best means of arousing interest 
in study is to make use of children's desire for approval. 
There are two reasons why the desire for approbation 
is a good school incentive. First. Practically all 
children desire the approval of those whom they es- 
teem. They like to know that their teacher and 
parents are well pleased with their work. The in- 
centive is, therefore, as applicable to the younger 
pupils as it is to the older ones, and to the duller as 
well as to the brighter members of any class. But 
this alone is not a sufficient justification for its use, 
for fear of punishment is probably just as universal. 
Second. The end to be gained, while it is not the in- 
trinsic end or purpose of study, is, nevertheless, a 
worthy motive. A desire for the respect and esteem of 
other people is a desirable trait or characteristic of 
adults. It makes them better citizens. Therefore, 
the desire for approval applies outside of school as 
well as in it. There is no serious danger to the pupils, 
then, in letting them study to win approbation. Even 
if they should form the habit of working from this 



256 Rural School Management 

motive and carry the habit into later life, they will, 
in the main, be all the better for having done so. 

The use of this incentive involves the right use of 
praise and censure. The incentive will be most ef- 
fective if the following precautions are observed: 
First. When praise is given it should be for the effort 
put forth and not for the result achieved by the 
pupil. The dull pupil who does his best, though his 
work may not be first-class, is as much entitled to a 
word of praise as is the brighter pupil who puts forth 
his best effort. Second. The praise given should be 
a sincere expression of the teacher's feeling. Flatter- 
ing does more harm than good. Third. Praise should 
be given sparingly. Pupils must not be led to expect 
praise for everything they do. An occasional word of 
sincere praise bestowed on a pupil when his effort 
merits special recognition — this will do much to stim- 
ulate faithful work on the part of most pupils. Fourth. 
If a pupil's work is unsatisfactory and the reasons for 
its being so are known to be within his control, an 
expression of disappointment, a mild censure, or a sharp 
reprimand by the teacher may serve to prevent its 
recurrence. But never should censure degenerate into 
" nagging." 

School Exhibits. Not only children but practically 
all adults are fond of having their work placed on pub- 
lic exhibition. In a great many schools this natural 
tendency is being used now, through school exhibits 
and parents' days, to stimulate pupils to do the very 
best work they are capable of doing. Methods of con- 
ducting such exhibits have been discussed in a previous 
chapter. 

Promotions. The desire to be promoted is a char- 
acteristic of almost all school children. Some writers 



School Incentives 257 

on school management object to the use of this desire 
as a school incentive, on the ground that in many 
cases children are overworked or worried into ner- 
vousness through fear of failing to " pass." These 
evils grow out of the misuse of the incentive. Any 
generic incentive is liable to abuse, and constantly 
threatening children with failure is certainly an unwise 
school practice. Other writers object to the use of 
this incentive because promotion is not the intrinsic 
purpose of study. This point must be conceded. 
But in cases where intrinsic purposes cannot be em- 
ployed, the desire to advance with one's class seems to 
be an entirely worthy motive for study. The desire 
for advancement is unquestionably an incentive to 
faithful work in many instances outside of school. 
Workmen in factories and mills and on railroads, clerks 
in stores, and even teachers are often promoted for 
faithful service. Furthermore, in many of these 
instances the possibility of advancement is held out as 
an inducement to get people to do their work well. 

The position taken here, therefore, is that, in the 
absence of specific incentives, the desire to be pro- 
moted, if used in moderation, is a legitimate school 
incentive. 

Grades. At the present time the giving of grades is 
undoubtedly the most widely used school incentive. 
Educators differ in their opinions as to the wisdom of 
giving grades in school, but they agree that the prac- 
tice is at present carried to a harmful extent in most 
schools. In a great many schools everything the 
pupils do is graded. Their oral recitations, their daily 
written work, their test papers, are graded. Grades 
are given out at the end of each month, each quarter, 
each term. Children compare and talk about their 



258 Rural School Management 

grades rather than their work, and sometimes both 
they and their parents complain if the grades are not 
what the pupils think they ought to be. 

A fuller treatment of the defects of the usual method 
of grading pupils is reserved for Chapter XIII. Prac- 
tically all educators now agree that there ought to be 
less stress placed on the getting of grades and more on 
the character of the work done by pupils. Some teach- 
ers have adopted the plan of using such words as 
" excellent," " good," "fair," and " poor " to indicate 
the character of a pupil's work. When such words 
are used in the way that praise and censure are em- 
ployed, the results are: (1) less unwholesome rivalry 
and ill feeling among the pupils, and (2) deeper concern 
about the work itself rather than about mere grades. 

Privileges. In some schools children are induced 
to study by offering them certain privileges, such as 
occupying '' honor " seats, and serving as monitors 
to distribute pupils' wraps or the materials for writing 
and drawing. If these privileges are given only to 
those pupils who attain the highest standing in their 
classes, they become a sort of prize for which the 
pupils work. This method of granting privileges is 
objectionable for the same reasons which we shall urge 
a little later, against the giving of prizes. A much 
better method is to rotate the privileges among the 
pupils in regular order, with the understanding that a 
pupil can have the privilege in his turn, provided his 
work is satisfactory. By this method the privilege is 
extended to all the pupils but is withdrawn from those 
who, in the opinion of the teacher, fail to put forth 
proper effort on their work. 

It is the practice in some schools to deprive children 
of their play period when they have failed to do their 



School Incentives 259 

work satisfactorily. This practice is objectionable for 
the reason that children really need the play and should 
have all of the time allotted to them for that purpose. 
A better plan is to give pupils the privilege of engaging 
in handwork or reading an interesting story after they 
have prepared their other work. Care should be 
taken to withdraw the privilege when a pupil fails to 
prepare the work he is expected to do. 

Immunities. An immunity is an exemption from 
some school task or from all school work for a cer- 
tain period. One method of using immunities is to 
excuse from examination all pupils whose class work 
attains a certain standard. Another is to give a half- 
holiday or dismiss pupils early at certain times on 
condition that they have met certain specified re- 
quirements in their work. 

There is a difference of opinion among educators as 
to the value of examinations, but we need not discuss 
that here. If we hold, as some do, that examinations 
or tests have a real educative value, then, clearly, it is 
unfair to deprive any pupil of the privilege of taking 
them and, hence, no pupil should be excused from 
them because of good class standing. If we accept 
the opposite view that examinations are harmful, 
then no pupil should be required to take them. In 
other words, whether or not a pupil should take the 
examinations depends upon their value and not upon 
the standard he attains in his class work. 

Much the same argument applies to half-holidays 
and early dismissals as incentives to study. If the 
school work is so profitable that some of the pupils 
should be kept at school to do it, then it ought to be 
worth while for all of: the pupils. 

A further argument against immunities is the fact 



260 Rural School Management 

that they place school work in the light of punishment 
— something to be escaped from when possible. 

In actual practice, however, immunities have been 
used temporarily with good results. In some instances 
teachers have used an immunity to get pupils to study 
until they became interested in their work for other 
and better reasons. This seems to be legitimate, pro- 
vided the immunity is abolished just as soon as some 
higher incentive can be used effectively. 

Fear of Punishment. Resorting to punishment is 
still used in some schools as an incentive to study. 
Scolding, keeping pupils after school, standing them 
on the floor, and whipping are a few of the many 
forms of punishment sometimes used to stimulate 
study. 

That punishment has a legitimate use in the school 
is not to be denied. But such use is in connection with 
order or discipline rather than with study. White 
states the true function of punishment to be " to serve 
as a check, not as a spur, — to suppress activity, not 
to energize it." 

There are three reasons why the use of punishment 
as a school incentive is objectionable. First. It leads 
to the minimum amount of study. Pupils put forth 
the least amount of effort that will avert the punish- 
ment. Second. It serves, in many instances, to in- 
crease a pupil's dislike for study. Third. Pupils 
who study from a sense of compulsion are very likely 
to take advantage of the first opportunity to quit school. 
They prefer to go out into life where they can do the 
things they like to do or feel a need of doing. 

Notwithstanding these and other objections to the 
use of punishment as a school incentive, the fact re- 
mains that no pupil should be permitted to remain in 



School Incentives 261 

school and show an utter disregard for all school tasks. 
If the pupil is to remain in school, some means must 
be found to induce him to put forth some effort to do 
his work. In such extreme cases, as in all cases, the 
best method is to find something the pupil likes to do 
and associate his work with that interest as a means 
of helping him to do the thing he likes. When this 
fails, recourse should be had to any or all of the generic 
incentives we have described. In case these prove in- 
effective, the fear of punishment may be invoked. 

Prizes. The term " prize '' is used here to include all 
such inducements to study as money, books, merit 
cards, badges or buttons, honor rolls, class honors, etc. 

There are two methods of using prizes as incentives. 
The first is to give the prize to the pupil who ranks 
highest in a given subject or line of work. Sometimes 
a second and a third prize are given to those who rank 
second and third in their class. The other method is 
to reward, in some way, all who attain a certain stand- 
ard of excellence in their work. The usual plan is to 
give merit cards or badges or class honors or a place 
on the honor roll to all pupils whose grades reach or 
exceed a certain mark. 

To both of these practices there are some very serious 
objections. First. The prizes will always be won by 
those pupils who are naturally the most capable or are 
most favorably situated. Other things being equal, 
the brighter pupils will always get the prizes. But if, 
for any reason, these are eliminated, those who can 
attend the school most regularly stand the next best 
chance of winning. Those who are less capable, and 
those who are compelled to be absent from school 
very much, soon come to realize that they cannot be 
in the winning group. These very naturally cease to 



262 Rural School Management 

be stimulated by the prize, and the contest narrows 
down to the few more fortunate pupils. The prize 
system, therefore, rewards natural ability or fortunate 
circumstances rather than genuine effort, and fails, in 
most cases, to stimulate the pupils who most need an 
incentive. Second. Prizes make their appeal to the 
instinct of rivalry — the instinct that prompts us to 
want to win over or beat others in some sort of con- 
test. When we offer prizes we cultivate this instinct 
and cause it to grow stronger. Educators now be- 
lieve that the school ought to strive to cultivate the 
spirit of cooperation, sympathy, and mutual helpful- 
ness rather than that of competition and strife. Under 
the conditions of present-day life outside of the school 
there is little or no need for stimulating the spirit of 
competition, while there is a great need for developing 
the idea of cooperation. If there is to be any compe- 
tition in the school, it should be between large groups or 
classes of pupils and not between individual children. 
The advantage of group competition is that it offers 
opportunities for cooperation and mutual helpfulness 
within the group. Third. Prize-giving frequently 
stirs up an ill feeling among children and tends to cul- 
tivate undesirable traits of character. There is danger 
that the winners will become vain and bigoted while 
the losers may become sullen and revengeful. In- 
stances are numerous in which children have rejoiced 
in any misfortune that served to keep their rivals in a 
spirited contest out of school. 

The verdict of practically all educators is that prize- 
giving as a school incentive is decidedly harmful and 
should not be practiced in any school. 

Other Generic Incentives. There are no doubt 
other incentives that may appeal to a few pupils. 



School Incentives 263 

Some children may be led to study from such motives 
as a feeling of self-respect, the desire for success in life, 
the wish to be a great scholar, the sense of right and 
duty, etc. Such incentives are perfectly worthy rea- 
sons for study and should be employed in all classes 
where they can be made effective. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Bagley : Classroom Management, Chapters XI-XII. 

Charters : Teaching the Common Branches, Chapter XVI, also 

Specific Needs and Generic Values in the index. 
CoLGROVE : The Teacher and the School, pp. 384-390. 
Button : School Management, Chapter VIII. 
Salisbury : School Management, Chapter XI. 
White : School Management, pp. 130-188. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. State what you consider to be the intrinsic function and one 
indirect function of : (1) a newspaper, (2) a dictionary, (3) grammar, 
(4) music, (5) manual training. 

2. Name ten immediate interests of children and show how each 
may be used to arouse an interest in some school subject. 

3. Why is the classification of incentives as specific and generic 
to be preferred to the other classifications given in the text? 

4. Why are specific incentives regarded as better than generic? 

5. Show how a specific incentive can be secured for the study 
of : (1) agriculture, (2) manual training, (3) domestic science. 

6. Which do you regard as the higher incentive and why — 
the desire for promotion or the desire for a high grade? 

7. State two objections to the use of punishment as a school 
incentive, in addition to those named in the text. 

8. What generic incentives besides those named in this chapter 
have you known to be used, or do you think can be used, success- 
fully with some children? 

9. Prepare a brief but careful summary of your study of the 
"Use of Generic Incentives." 



CHAPTER XII 

SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 

I. FUNCTIONS OF SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 

Ability to discipline a school is one of the foremost 
qualifications of the teacher. In our attempt to learn 
how a school may be governed it is necessary for us 
to consider, first of all, what constitutes good discipline 
in school and why a school should be well governed. 

Meaning of School Government. Our conception 
of what constitutes good order in school has changed 
greatly within recent years. Not so very long ago 
good order was supposed to consist in the stillness 
and quietness of the pupils. A school was thought 
to be well governed if the pupils remained in their 
seats and made as little noise as possible. According 
to this view a good disciplinarian was one who could 
suppress most effectively all physical activity and 
noise on the part of the pupils. 

But this notion of good order is no longer common. 
Since we have learned more about the nature and needs 
of children, we have seen that the old view of discipline 
is wrong. We know now that activity is necessary 
to the development of children. We know, too, that 
a certain amount of noise is unavoidable. The sup- 
pression of all activity and noise on the part of children 
tends to defeat the main purpose of the school, in 
that it prevents the natural development and the 
most effective learning on the part of the pupils. 

264 



School Government 265 

But everybody understands, of course, that no pupil 
should act in such a way as to disturb other children 
in their work. According to our present view a school 
is well governed when all of the pupils are interestedly, 
actively employed on their school tasks but are doing 
their work without interfering with the rights of other 
pupils. The same idea applies to conduct on the 
playground. School discipline, therefore, as we view 
it at present, means keeping children profitably em- 
ployed in work or at play in such a way as not to 
disturb or interfere with the rights of other pupils in 
their work or play. 

To Preserve Good Order. The immediate function 
of school government is to create and maintain good 
order in the school. By good order we mean a condi- 
tion in which every pupil can do his work without 
unnecessary interruption or interference from others. 
To this end pupils must not be boisterous or unneces- 
sarily noisy. There must be no laughing, talking, or 
moving about the room that would create a disturb- 
ance during study time. Pupils may be permitted to 
work together provided they do not thereby disturb 
others in their work. But " visiting " among pupils 
is out of order, because it necessarily interferes with 
the right of others to pursue their work. Further- 
more, a pupil who " visits " during study time not 
only prevents others learning, but deprives himself of 
a part of the profit which he should receive. 

To preserve order in the school, then, means to 
prevent those things that tend to disturb the work 
of the school. It means to permit nothing on the 
part of any pupil that will distract others or waste 
his own time and energy. Children may exercise all 
of the freedom and activity essential to their own 



266 Rural School Management 

learning without necessarily causing a disturbance 
in the school. 

The same principle applies to the playground. 
Here, as well as in the schoolroom, the rights of others 
and the good of the school as a whole must be respected 
in the conduct of every pupil. To preserve these 
conditions, to guarantee to all of the pupils their 
right to work and play without unnecessary interfer- 
ence, is the first and the immediate purpose of school 
government. 

Training in Right Conduct. We learned in another 
connection that the main function of the school is to 
help children become efficient citizens. In order to 
accomplish this end, it must do more than teach them 
the common school subjects. It must train them in 
matters of right conduct. This is the second function 
of school government. 

If children are to become good citizens, it is very 
important that they shall learn to control their un- 
desirable impulses, to work and play agreeably with 
other children, to have a wholesome respect for the 
rights of other people, and to maintain a due regard 
for authority. It is important that children shall 
acquire habits of work, of obedience, of honesty, and 
of truthfulness. It is important, in a word, that 
children shall acquire all of those traits of character 
that good citizens are expected to possess. 

These qualities the school can impart, to some 
extent at least, through its methods of discipline. 
In a well-governed school, children control their evil 
impulses. They work and play in harmony, and 
respect the rights of one another and the authority 
of the teacher. These things they do from day to 
day in concrete situations in their own experience 



School Government 267 

where there is a real need for doing them. Thus 
habits of right conduct are estabhshed and a good 
character is formed. The teacher who recognizes 
this as one of the functions of school discipline will 
take advantage of every opportunity that arises in 
the school to get children to do the things that are 
desirable, to the end that right action may become 
habitual with them. 

Summary. According to the present view a school is well 
governed when every pupil is engaged in study and does his 
work in such a way as not to disturb or hinder others. School 
government has two functions: (1) to preserve order in the 
school, and (2) to train pupils in the formation of habits of right 
conduct. 

II. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

Having learned what constitutes good school gov- 
ernment and what ends it should accomplish, we are 
ready to consider the difficulties usually encountered 
in trying to attain the ends desired. 

The causes of disorder in school are so numerous 
and so varied that a complete list cannot be given 
here. We shall consider only those causes of mis- 
conduct that apply to schools in general. 

Unhygienic and Unattractive Surroundings. Poor 
ventilation, improper heating and humidity, and bad 
lighting conditions are common causes of disorder 
in school. Such conditions make it difficult for pupils 
to apply themselves to their school work. Hence 
they lapse into idleness or find rther outlets for their 
energy. Disfiguring desks, thrc ving paper wads, re- 
flecting bright lights into the eyes of other pupils with a 
mirror, and various other mischievous pranks are the 
legitimate results of poor working conditions in the room. 



268 Rural School Management 

Again, a dirty, belittered schoolroom is an invita- 
tion to pupils to be careless and inconsiderate of others. 
A filthy, disfigured toilet is a stimulus to children to 
be filthy in both thought and action. Many of the 
disgusting practices connected with the use of toilets 
are suggested to children by the obscene writing and 
drawings and the filth-covered seats and floors found 
in neglected outhouses. Ugliness in the schoolroom 
or on the premises appeals to the baser elements in 
children's nature, while beauty and attractiveness 
serve to restrain the impulses and inspire to nobler 
thoughts and deeds. 

Good conduct, both in the schoolroom and on the play- 
ground, is easier for children amid hygienic and attrac- 
tive surroundings than it is under opposite conditions. 

Physical Condition of Pupils. A source of disorder 
closely related to the one we have just described is 
found in the physical condition of the pupils. That 
physical defects interfere with school progress is a 
matter of common knowledge. A child who does not 
see well enough to read the maps and charts, or the 
work placed on the blackboard, is likely to lose interest 
in his work and become inattentive. So, also, is one 
who cannot hear well enough to understand what the 
other pupils and the teacher say. Other defects, such 
as adenoids and defective teeth, are known to produce 
similar results. Losing interest, becoming inattentive 
and indifferent to school work, are conditions which 
favor misconduct. If pupils are not interested in 
their lessons, they are very likely to become interested 
in the things that make for disorder in the school. 
The effects of physical deficiencies on school discipline 
constitute another argument for the medical inspec- 
tion of school children. 



School Government 269 

Uninteresting School Work. Practically every one 
who has taught school knows that much of the dis- 
order grows out of a lack of interest on the part of 
pupils. The child who likes his school work and 
applies himself diligently to the study of his lessons 
may occasionally do something that is out of order. 
But the habitual trouble-makers are in most cases 
those who are not interested in their work. A well- 
selected course of study and good school incentives con- 
tribute a great deal toward overcoming this difficulty. 

Instinctive Tendencies of Children. A fourth source 
of disorder in school lies in certain instinctive or natural 
tendencies of children. These vary with different 
children and with different stages in the life of the 
same child. There are times, for instance, when 
children are more or less selfish and want their own 
way in almost everything. Some children are, at 
times, fond of teasing or tormenting others and fre- 
quently get into quarrels and fights. Showing off, 
doing things that are unique or sensational in order 
to attract attention to themselves, is a prominent 
characteristic of some children at certain times. The 
formation of gangs or cliques, admiration for the 
opposite sex, and the writing of love notes are trace- 
able to certain instincts. In many instances, the 
so-called " meanness " of children is simply a strong 
natural tendency that needs to be controlled, or 
directed in ways that will make it beneficial rather 
than harmful to the child and to the school as a whole. 

Poor Home Training. The kind of training children 
receive in their homes constitutes an important factor 
in school government. Children that come from un- 
cultured homes cannot be expected to have the best 
of manners until they have had time to acquire them 



270 Rural School Management 

through the influence of the school. If children are 
permitted to be boisterous, rude, and quarrelsome 
at home; if they are accustomed to hear profane 
or vulgar language ; if they are allowed to be dis- 
respectful to their parents, or to address their elders 
with too much familiarity, they are likely to display 
these qualities at school until they have been trained 
in better ways of acting. A child's first ideas of right 
and wrong, of what constitutes propriety, are acquired 
in the home. These he takes to school with him, and, 
if they lead him to do things that are out of order, 
he should have the school's help in acquiring better 
ideas and better ways of acting. 

The Teacher. In enumerating the principal sources 
of disorder in the school, the teacher himself must not 
be left out of the list. There is no doubt that in many 
instances the misconduct of pupils is traceable to some 
trait or action of the teacher. There is an old saying 
to the effect that "as is the teacher so is the school." 
Nowhere is this saying more true than in connection 
with school discipline. The noisy, blustering teacher 
is sure to be imitated in those traits by some of his 
pupils. The teacher who scolds, nags, worries, and 
frets creates a condition very unfavorable to good 
order. Again, teachers sometimes drive their pupils 
into rebellion by the harsh, cruel means they use, or 
spoil them through misguided sympathy and over- 
indulgence. The teacher who is made cross or ill- 
tempered from loss of sleep or poor health is likely to 
incur the dislike of his pupils and thereby lose his 
influence and control over them. 

The elements of the teacher's personality that make 
for good order are discussed in the next section. It 
will suffice here to say that any teacher who is troubled 



School Government 271 

with disorder in his school will do well to examine 
himself carefully to see whether his own conduct is 
not responsible, to some extent at least, for the mis- 
conduct of his pupils. 

Summary. The conditions that tend to produce disorder in 
the school are numerous, and are sometimes confined to a par- 
ticular school or pupil. Among the causes that are more or less 
general are : unhygienic and unattractive school surroundings, 
physical deficiencies of pupils, uninteresting school work, certain 
instinctive tendencies of children, lack of proper home training, 
and certain traits or actions on the part of the teacher. 

m. HOW TO GOVERN THE SCHOOL 

Disciplinary Agencies Already Studied. Almost 
every chapter we have studied thus far has an im- 
portant bearing on the government of the school. 
The teacher who succeeds in arousing interest on the 
part of his patrons will have their cooperation in 
matters of discipline as well as in the other affairs of 
the school. School hygiene and the beautifying of 
the school premises, by making conditions favorable 
for study, tend to prevent undesirable conduct on the 
part of pupils. A well-equipped playground and an 
active interest in play by the teacher tend to give 
the teacher an easy control over the conduct of the 
children. A daily program and a course of study 
which provide interesting work for pupils during both 
the study and the recitation periods go a long way 
toward maintaining good order in the school. And 
fianlly, good school incentives, as we have seen, con- 
stitute one of the best means of preventing disorder 
and accomplishing the ends of school discipline. 

It seems, therefore, that the use of these agencies 
ought to be sufficient to solve the problem of how to 



272 Rural School Management 

govern the school. Indeed, if the conditions set forth 
in previous chapters can be fully attained in the school, 
there will be little need for the employment of other 
means. However, there are, even in the best of schools, 
occasional instances of misconduct that require the 
use of special agencies of control. Some of these we 
shall now consider. 

The Teacher. Attention has already been called 
to the fact that ability to govern the school is regarded 
as one of the most important qualifications of the 
teacher. School boards always try to be sure that 
an applicant is a good disciplinarian before they 
employ him to teach their school. Many persons 
who are otherwise good teachers fail because of a 
lack of ability to govern the school properly. Our 
problem here, then, is to find out, if we can, in what 
this special ability, this very important qualification, 
consists. Just what are the elements in a teacher's 
personality that give him the power to govern the 
school ? 

Nearly all writers on school management enumerate 
the qualities in the teacher's character and training 
which they regard as essential in a good disciplinarian. 
Baldwin ^ gives the following list : 

1. Bearing — dignified quietness and confidence. 

2. Tact — a wise use of all educational agencies. 

3. System — orderliness, the fitness of things. 

4. Will power — control through high motives. 

5. Heart power — sympathetic helpfulness. 

6. Teaching power — stimulating pupils to do their best work. 

7. Pupil insight — an understanding of child nature. 

8. Culture — a mastery of the subjects one teaches. 

9. Character — being what one wishes his pupils to become. 

^ School Management and School Methods, p. 95. 



School Government 273 

As given by Bagley (" Classroom Management "), 
the essential elements of personality in the teacher are : 

Courage — physical and moral fearlessness. 

Tact — preserving order without an undue display of authority. 

Persistence — a rigid adherence to necessary requirements for 
good order. 

Scholarship — mastery of subject matter and ability to present 
it so children can comprehend it. 

Justice — the spirit of fair play, the " square deal." 

Good nature — a genial, sunny disposition. 

Another list includes such qualities as address, 
personal appearance, optimism, reserve or dignity, 
enthusiasm, fairness, sincerity, sjonpathy, vitality, and 
scholarship. 

If the judgment of these and other experienced 
educators is to be relied upon, it is perfectly clear that 
from the standpoint of ability to govern the school 
there are certain qualities that every teacher should 
possess. Undoubtedly he ought to give careful atten- 
tion to his personal appearance, including such matters 
as cleanliness of person and clothing, modesty of dress, 
etc. He ought to be courteous, kind, and sympathetic, 
convincing pupils that he is their true friend and 
helper. He should be fair, tactful, and firm, in the 
enforcement of the measures found necessary to pre- 
serve good order. And further, he should have a 
sufficient mastery of subject matter and skill in teach- 
ing to inspire pupils with a respect for, and confidence 
in, his ability as a teacher. 

If the teacher has such qualities as we have men- 
tioned, there is little danger that his school will become 
disorderly or that he will fail as a teacher because of 
inability to govern. Fortunately, most persons who 
aspire to be teachers can acquire, with reasonable 



274 Rural School Management 

effort, the qualifications most essential to their success. 
Having first learned what traits of character are most 
needed to maintain order in the school, the next step 
is a conscious endeavor to put these qualities into 
practice at every opportunity. 

Summary. Important agencies for promoting good order in 
the school are: interest in the school on the part of patrons; 
medical inspection and hygienic and attractive surroundings; 
facilities for play ; a well-arranged daily program and an interest- 
ing course of study ; good school incentives ; and a teacher whose 
personality includes an attractive personal appearance, kindness, 
sympathy, justice, tact, firmness, scholarship, and skill in teaching. 

Rules and Regulations. The practice of using a 
code of rules and regulations as a means of promoting 
school discipline is not very common at present. 
Formerly, it was the custom in many schools for the 
teacher to post up in the room, or to read at the be- 
ginning of the term, a long list of rules stating what 
pupils should or should not do and specifying a certain 
penalty for the violation of each rule. 

Objections to a Set of Rules. Educators now be- 
lieve that the practice just referred to is decidedly 
unwise. There are three main objections urged against 
the reading of a set of rules at the opening of the school. 
First. It is impossible to have a list of rules that will 
cover all of the offenses children may commit. No one 
can foresee all of the disorderly things children may do 
in school. And pupils feel at liberty to do anything 
that is not specifically forbidden, or at least to justify 
their action on the ground that it was not "against 
the rules." Second. The rightness or wrongness of 
children's behavior at school is not always a fixed 
matter. An action that is wrong at one time may 
not be wrong at another time under different circum- 



School Government 275 

stances. What is wrong for one pupil may not be 
wrong in the same degree for another pupil. Or it 
may be, in some instances, that the wrong lies not so 
much in what is done as in the way it is done. What 
a pupil says to the teacher, for instance, may be per- 
fectly proper so far as the words are concerned, but 
the manner of expression may make it very impertinent. 
Third. The reading of a set of rules often suggests to 
pupils things they would not have thought of doing, 
but which, when once brought to their attention, they 
become eager to do. Accordingly they " take chances," 
'* try out " the teacher, or do the things stealthily, if 
possible. In such cases the rules serve to provoke 
rather than prevent misconduct on the part of pupils. 
Instead of having a set of rules, the best teachers 
prefer to place the responsibility for good conduct 
very largely on the children themselves. When some- 
thing is done that the teacher regards as an offense, 
he explains why it is out of order and requests that it 
shall not be repeated. He has, or should have, fairly 
clearly in mind what he will do in case the offense is 
repeated, but he does not make this known to the 
pupils. He does not tie his hands with threats, but 
keeps himself free to deal with each offender in the 
light of all the circumstances connected with the case. 

Summary. Experienced educators have found that the read- 
ing or posting of a set of rules is not a good method of governing 
a school. The best teachers prefer to place the responsibility 
for right conduct on the pupils and to deal with ofifenses as they 
arise in the way that seems best in each case. 

Punishment. The use of punishment is undoubtedly 
the most widespread means of maintaining order among 
school children. The agencies we have studied thus 
far (with the exception of rules) seek to preserve good 



276 Rural School Management 

order by providing those conditions in the school that 
are especially favorable to good conduct on the part 
of pupils. Punishment, on the other hand, is a means 
of preventing disorder through a fear of the unpleasant 
consequences that may follow wrongdoing. Means of 
the former type are universally regarded as the better 
where they can be made effective. But experience 
has shown that it is necessary sometimes, even in the 
best of schools, to resort to punishment in order to 
govern the school properly. 

Functions of Punishment. Punishment, as a means 
of school discipline, has two important functions; 
namely, to prevent wrongdoing, and to reform the 
wrongdoer. 

Misconduct on the part of any pupil should be pre- 
vented for two reasons. It is necessary, in the first 
place, to protect other children in their right to study 
or play without disturbance or interference from others. 
Even one disorderly pupil may disturb the work of 
the whole school, or mar the value of the play period 
for other children. Misconduct should be prevented, 
in the second place, because of the influence of the 
conduct of one pupil on the behavior of other children. 
Children are naturally imitative. They are inclined 
to want to do what they see others doing. Misconduct 
in school has been known, in many instances, to spread 
from the example of a single bad pupil. 

It is clear, therefore, that all disorderly behavior in 
school should be prevented, to the end that pupils 
may be protected from disturbance in their study and 
from the influence of a bad example. In all cases 
where better means fail to accomplish this end, the 
fear of punishment may be invoked. The punishment 
that is employed to prevent a pupil from repeating 



School Government 277 

his misdeeds may serve incidentally to prevent others 
from committing similar offenses. 

But in addition to preventing disorder through 
restraint, punishment should serve also to reform 
the wrongdoers. This means that the punishment 
should be such as will tend to overcome or remove 
the pupil's desire to do the things that are objection- 
able. To make the pupil better, to help him master 
his undesirable impulse, to train him to do and to want 
to do the things that are approved of by the best 
people — this is a duty the school owes to every 
pupil. In some cases punishment may be necessary 
to accomplish this end. 

Summary. Punishment, as a means of promoting school 
government, serves to prevent disorder by appealing to the 
fear of suffering for wrongdoing. The need for punishment 
arises when all of the agencies for stimulating pupils to good 
conduct fail. The functions of punishment are : (1) to prevent 
disorderly conduct, and (2) to reform refractory pupils. 

Objectionable Forms of Punishment. The purposes 
which punishment ought to accomplish should be the 
teacher's guide in selecting the form of penalty to 
use in any given case. Just what punishment to use 
for any given offense cannot be prescribed. The teacher 
who knows all of the circumstances in the case is the one 
to decide what penalty should be employed. There are 
some forms of punishment, however, which fail so 
utterly to accomplish the true ends of punishment 
that teachers should be cautioned against employing 
them. 

Threatening and Nagging. These are methods of 
dealing with school offenses that should never be 
employed. Both nagging and frequent threatening 
fail, in most cases, to accomplish either of the aims of 



278 Rural School Management 

punishment — they neither restrain nor reform pupils. 
They more frequently result in creating a disrespect 
for the teacher, and when this happens, the teacher's 
best means of control is lost. Further than this, they 
sometimes stimulate pupils to make their conduct 
even more objectionable. 

Sarcasm and Ridicule. Sarcasm and ridicule cer- 
tainly have nothing to recommend or justify their 
use as punishments. Speaking in terms of scorn or 
contempt of pupils' work or behavior, taunting them 
with their faults, and making keen, cutting jests at 
their expense serve to anger rather than reform pupils. 
Most pupils in the elementary school are too immature 
to catch the point of a sarcastic remark, and there- 
fore cannot be helped by it, while those who are old 
enough to comprehend its significance are most likely 
thoroughly to resent such methods. Jesting or " pok- 
ing fun " at the frailties of pupils is more often the 
venting of the teacher's anger at his own failure than 
it is a sincere desire to help pupils overcome their 
weakness. The use of sarcasm and ridicule is decid- 
edly harmful in a vast majority of cases. 

Applying reproachful epithets to children is a prac- 
tice closely related to, but even more harmful than, 
the use of sarcasm and ridicule. To call a pupil a 
blockhead, an idiot, a sneak, a liar, or a thief is the 
gravest of insults. Such a practice should be beneath 
the dignity of any self-respecting teacher. 

Personal Indignities. Such personal indignities as 
striking pupils on the head, boxing their ears, and 
pulling their hair are other forms of punishment that 
are thoroughly objectionable. In the same class be- 
long the so-called '' appropriate " punishments, such 
as washing a pupil's mouth with soap and water, 



School Government 279 

tying a cloth over the mouth, and sealing the lips 
with court plaster. Such punishments do not serve 
the true functions of punishment. Hence they are, 
at least, a waste of time and energy and frequently 
result in positive harm. 

Saturation. Saturation is the term applied to that 
form of punishment in which the pupil is required 
to repeat the offense he has committed until he is 
tired of doing it. If a pupil has been guilty of throw- 
ing paper wads, for instance, he is required to make 
and throw paper wads until he grows weary of it. 
In order to break a pupil of the tendency to lie down 
in his seat, a teacher placed a coat on the seat for a 
pillow and required the pupil to lie there during an 
entire quarter-day session of the school. 

Such a form of punishment is fundamentally wrong. 
If the deed is a real offense against the school, clearly 
the teacher has no right to require the pupil to repeat 
it. Even children are able to see the inconsistency 
in such a practice. Again, the child may absolutely 
refuse to obey — to be made a source of amusement, 
a spectacle for other pupils to laugh at. In this case 
the situation becomes complicated. The teacher not 
only has to select another penalty for the original 
offense, he has the additional offense of disobedience 
to deal with. Saturation may occasionally serve to 
restrain pupils, but the chances of its failing and the 
fundamental inconsistency in the method make it 
unwise for teachers to resort to it as a form of punish- 
ment. 

School Tasks. The practice of requiring pupils to 
perform school tasks as a punishment for their wrong- 
doing is, in general, open to serious criticism. If a 
pupil has wasted the time allotted to him for the 



280 Rural School Management 

study of a given lesson, he may, and should, be re- 
quired to prepare the lesson he has neglected. Some 
additional punishment as a penalty for idleness is, 
perhaps, permissible. But the setting of legitimate 
school work as a penalty for other forms of misconduct 
is objectionable because it gives the pupil the wrong 
attitude toward the work required. To illustrate, 
suppose a pupil is required to memorize a poem or 
write a composition or solve additional arithmetic 
problems as a penalty for having quarreled with a 
playmate. In most cases the result will be a thorough 
dislike for the work assigned rather than a wish to 
be a better pupil. Teachers should distinguish care- 
fully between requiring school work to be done be- 
cause it has been neglected and requiring it as a penalty 
for disorderly conduct. The former is a legitimate 
practice, while the latter is objectionable and should 
not be employed. 

Summary. Some of the punishments frequently used in 
school are objectionable because (1) they fail to accomplish 
the ends for which punishment should be used, and (2) they 
tend, in many instances, to make the conduct or attitude of 
pupils worse than it was before they were punished. Threaten- 
ing and nagging, sarcasm and ridicule, personal indignities, 
saturation, and school tasks are objectionable for one or both 
of these reasons. 

Desirable Forms of Punishment. Having enumer- 
ated some of the punishments that are to be avoided, 
it is in order next to name a few that may be used 
with reasonable assurance that good results will follow. 

Reproof. Reproof has been found to be an excellent 
means of preventing the repetition of offenses against 
school discipline. It consists in calling attention to 
the offense committed, explaining why it is offensive. 



School Government 281 

and requesting that it shall not be repeated. This 
statement may be made in public, or to the pupil or 
pupils who committed the misdeed. In many cases 
this is the only punishment the pupils will need. For 
when they once understand that their conduct is 
objectionable, many of them will wish to escape the 
further disapproval either of the teacher or of other 
pupils. The aim of the teacher should be to create 
in the school a public sentiment against wrongdoing. 
Such a sentimxcnt is one of the most powerful means 
that can be employed to restrain and reform pupils. 

A friendly heart-to-heart talk is often very effective, 
especially with the older children. In such a talk the 
teacher should strive, in a friendly, sympathetic way, 
to get from the pupil the reasons for his misconduct, 
a frank admission that such conduct is wrong, and a 
sincere promise not to repeat the offense. If the 
pupil is thoroughly convinced that the teacher is his 
friend and wants to be his helper, he is very likely 
to be favorably affected by such an interview. This 
means has resulted in reforming many a troublesome 
boy and girl, where harsh methods would have failed. 

Notifying Parents. It frequently happens that 
parents are ignorant of the trouble their children 
cause in school, and many of them would be glad, 
if they knew the facts, to cooperate with the teacher 
in correcting the evils. The fear of disapproval at 
home is an excellent aid to school government. A 
child's desire for the approbation of his parents is a 
perfectly worthy motive for good conduct and one 
to which the teacher may legitimately appeal in his 
dealings with children. A definite, sjnnpathetic under- 
standing between teacher and parents is known to be 
one of the best means of promoting good order in the 



282 Rural School Management 

school. Parents have a right to know of the mis- 
deeds of their children, to the end that they may 
help bring about their reform. A personal visit by 
the teacher to interview the parents is sometimes the 
most effective punishment for a refractory pupil that 
can be employed. 

In a certain school there was one boy who was 
particularly troublesome. His offenses were so many 
and so serious that the teacher asked the school board 
to expel him from school. But, before any action 
was taken in the matter, the superintendent visited 
the school. He suggested that the teacher confer 
with the boy's parents. Acting upon this suggestion, 
the teacher called at the home and gave the parents 
a straightforward statement of all the facts in the 
case. The parents were genuinely surprised to learn 
that the boy had caused any trouble at school. They 
promised the teacher that if he would permit the boy 
to remain in school, they would guarantee his good 
behavior thereafter. The teacher consented to the 
arrangement and the parents fulfilled their agreement. 

Isolation. A great many teachers have found that 
the practice of isolating pupils has a wholesome effect 
on their conduct. This punishment consists in separat- 
ing the naughty pupil from other children so that he 
cannot be associated with them in certain school activi- 
ties. If a pupil is quarrelsome, overbearing, or other- 
wise disorderly on the playground, he is not permitted 
to play with other children. He must play either at 
a different period or on a different part of the play- 
ground from that used by the other pupils. Likewise, 
if a pupil is disrespectful or misbehaves in class, he 
is not allowed to take part in the class exercises but 
must recite alone or write out his lessons for the teacher. 



School Government 283 

A concrete instance will serve to illustrate one 
method of using this form of punishment. A certain 
pupil was particularly annoying because of his con- 
stant talking to and tormenting pupils who sat near 
him in school. The teacher had a private interview 
with him about his conduct, but this failed to bring 
any improvement. Accordingly she arranged a seat 
in one corner of the room and assigned the boy to this 
seat with the understanding that he was to occupy 
it until he had decided to conduct himself properly at 
his regular desk. He was at liberty to return to his 
regular seat at any time, but his returning was to be 
the signal that he had decided not to cause any further 
trouble. He remained at the special seat for several 
days, but finally returned of his own accord to the 
desk from which he had been removed. There was 
no further disorder in the school on his part. 

Isolation, as a mode of punishment, has two strong 
points in its favor. First, it effectively prevents a 
repetition of the offense while the pupil is isolated, 
and second, it causes the pupil to think seriously about 
his conduct and, in some instances, to decide for him- 
self that a different course of action would be preferable. 

Loss of Privileges. Depriving pupils of certain 
privileges is generally regarded as an excellent form 
of punishment. The abuse of a privilege should re- 
sult naturally in the loss of that privilege. The 
effectiveness of this penalty is in proportion to the 
extent to which the pupils enjoy or appreciate the 
privilege withdrawn from them. There is, of course, 
no punishment in withdrawing a privilege that a 
pupil cares little or nothing about. However, the 
principle has rather a wide application to school 
discipline. There are a number of privileges which 



284 Rural School Management 

most pupils enjoy and which they would dislike to 
lose. Among such privileges the following may be 
mentioned : 

1. Serving as monitor to distribute and collect wraps, writing 
and drawing material, etc. 

2. Performing certain services for school, such as cleaning the 
blackboard, carrying water, etc. 

3. Engaging in handwork or reading an interesting book after 
the other work has been prepared. 

4. Sitting at a favorite desk or with a certain playmate. 

5. Playing with other children. 

6. Taking part in some school exercise, such as an entertainment 
or a debating contest. 

7. Belonging to a school organization, such as an athletic team, 
school chorus, or student club. 

To make this form of punishment effective it must 
be made clear to the pupil that his loss of the privilege 
is due to his misconduct and that the privilege can be 
restored only when he has given evidence that his 
offenses will not be repeated. If the privilege makes 
a very strong appeal to the pupil, he is very likely to 
meet the conditions required to regain it. 

Detention. Keeping pupils in at recess or after 
school should be resorted to only when it takes the 
form of the loss of a privilege. If a pupil is kept in, 
he should understand clearly that it is for one of two 
reasons; namely, that he has wasted his study time 
and, consequently, must do the work he has neglected 
before he can have his playtime ; or that his conduct 
on the playground is so objectionable that he has lost 
the privilege of playing with other children. In all 
cases a pupil should have the full time allotted for 
play, but he may be required, for either of the above 
reasons, to play at a time other than the regular play 
period. 



School Government 285 

For certain reasons, however, detention should not 
often be resorted to. In the first place, the teacher 
should be free to go out and play with the pupils at all 
intermissions. In the second place, keeping a pupil 
after school may interfere with the janitor's work, or 
deprive the pupil's parents of his help after school 
hours, or, on account of the long distance to go, make 
the pupil late in reaching home. It is also frequently 
inconvenient for the teacher. These matters should 
have due consideration before a pupil is detained. 

Restitution. In some schools pupils are required to 
make good any damage to school or private property 
which results from carelessness or willfulness on their 
part. Such restitution or reparation is certainly very 
desirable. Stolen property should always be restored 
to its owner. A damaged book, whether it belongs 
to the school or to a pupil, should be made good or 
paid for. A broken window pane should be replaced. 
But restitution, as a school punishment, is adequate 
only when it involves some sacrifice on the part of 
the guilty pupil. If he must use the money he has 
saved for other purposes, or find a way to earn money 
with which to make good the damage done, he is 
punished for his offense. But if the parents make the 
restitution without making any demands on the 
pupil, some other penalty should be imposed on the 
child. 

Corporal Punishment. There is a wide difference 
of opinion among educators as to whether whipping 
should ever be resorted to as a school punishment. 
For our purposes here it is not necessary to state the 
arguments for and against this form of punishment. 
It will be sufficient to say that the weight of opinion, 
based on observation and experience, seems to be in 



286 Rural School Management 

favor of its use in extreme cases. The fear of whip- 
ping undoubtedly serves as a powerful restraint. In 
many instances it is an effective preventive of dis- 
order, and this is one of the functions of punishment. 
It may also occasionally effect the reform of a refrac- 
tory pupil. Apparently, there are some children who 
must be compelled through fear of pain to control 
their undesirable impulses before any higher motive 
can be made to appeal to them. 

In the use of corporal punishment a few precautions 
should be observed. First. A whipping should never 
be administered in a spirit of anger or revenge on the 
part of the teacher. The teacher must exercise the 
self-control he is trying to establish in the conduct 
of the pupil. Second. The punishment should be 
severe enough to be effective, but never cruel or brutal. 
It must not result in any bodily injury to the child. 
Third. It should not be an attempt at the public 
humiliation of a pupil. The punishment should be 
administered at a time when both teacher and pupil 
are free from excitement, when the pupil can reflect 
on the seriousness of his misdeeds, and when there is 
no occasion for displaying a spirit of bravado or martyr- 
dom on his part. 

Suspension and Expulsion. In most of the states 
the teacher has the right, under the law, to suspend 
a pupil for a limited time for disorderly conduct. The 
right of expulsion usually rests with the school board. 
It is generally conceded now that these penalties 
should be employed only in the most extreme cases. 
When all other means have failed to govern a pupil 
whose conduct is vicious, the teacher may suspend 
him for a few days. But if, when he returns to school, 
he is still unmanageable, he should be expelled by the 



School Government 287 

school board. Such a course is not only justifiable, 
it is positively necessary in some cases. Well-behaved 
and well-meaning children have a right to be pro- 
tected from persistent disturbance and from the 
pernicious influence of an incorrigible pupil. This is 
the reason why the state has given school authorities 
the right of expulsion. 

Summary. The characteristics of a desirable form of punish- 
ment are that it prevents disorder and, if possible, reforms the 
offender. Among the penalties that will generally, if rightly- 
used, accomplish one or both of these ends are: reproof, reports 
to parents, isolation, loss of privileges, detention, restitution, and 
corporal punishment. When all other means have failed, sus- 
pension or expulsion may be employed. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Bagley : Classroom Management, Chapters VII-VIII. 

Bagley : School Discipline, Chapters I-III. 

Baldwin: School Management and School Methods, Chapters X, 

XII, XIV. 
COLGROVE : The Teacher and the School, Chapter XXIV. 
Button : School Management, Chapter VII. 
Morehouse : The Discipline of the School, Chapters IX-XI. 
Salisbury : School Management, Chapter XIV. 
White : School Management, pp. 190-216. 



CLASS EXERCISES 

1. What, in your opinion, are the causes of the change of 
view as to what constitutes good order in the school? 

2. Give two reasons why good order should be preserved in 
the schoolroom and on the playground. 

3. Name five characteristics of a good citizen from the stand- 
point of conduct which you think the school ought to cultivate 
in children. 

4. State three causes of disorder in school that are not listed 
in the text. 



288 Rural School Management 

5. Why are such conditions as hygienic and attractive sur- 
roundings, good incentives, etc., more desirable means of preserv- 
ing order than punishment? 

6. Is lowering a pupil's grades in the subjects he studies as a 
penalty for misconduct an objectionable or a desirable form of 
punishment? Give reasons for your answer. 

7. Think of your favorite teacher and name the elements in 
his or her personality which you admire most. 

8. Give, from your own observation Or experience, two illus- 
trations of the use of objectionable punishments. State why 
each was objectionable. 

9. Some educators believe that the teacher ought to have a 
few rules at the beginning of school. What reasons can you give 
in support of this view? 

10. Name five punishments, other than those listed in the 
text, which you have seen used in school. Classify each as ob- 
jectionable or desirable and give reasons for your classification. 



CHAPTER XIII 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 

I. FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS 

Meaning of Measuring Results. In all lines of 
business a great deal of importance is being attached 
to measuring the results of effort. Our very best 
farmers take pains to know just what results are 
obtained from the work done on their farms. They 
know exactly, or nearly so, the quality and the quantity 
of the products raised and the cost of producing the 
same. They keep records to show how the results of 
one year compare with those of other years, how the 
results of one method of farming differ from those 
obtained under different methods, how the products 
of their farms compare with those of other farms, 
and so on. The managers of factories, mills, etc., 
are even more careful to know just what results are 
obtained from the work done in their institutions. 
They know just what products are made, and keep 
an accurate account of the quality, quantity, and 
cost of production of each. By this means they are 
able to know at any time whether the industry is 
yielding them a profit and, if so, how much. They 
are also able to determine just what changes should 
be made, if any, to make the enterprise more profitable. 

Thus it is seen that good business management 
requires, first of all, that the managers shall be able 
to determine just what is being accomplished — to 
measure the results obtained. This principle applies 

289 



290 Rural School Management 

as much to the school as to any other hne of business. 
In order to know just how efficient the school is, we 
must have some way of measuring the work it does. 

We learned in another connection that there are 
several things the school ought to do. It would be well 
if we could measure the results obtained along all of 
these lines. But since the education of the children of 
the community is the most important function of the 
school, our discussion of educational measurements 
will be confined to that phase of the school's work. 

As a Basis of Comparison. Measuring the results 
of teaching is very important as a means of enabling 
school officials and teachers to make the comparisons 
necessary to bring about the best management of 
the school. School boards and patrons ought to know 
just how efficient their school is at any time. To 
this end they should be able to compare the results 
achieved in their school with those achieved in other 
schools. They should know also how the work done 
under one teacher compares with that done under 
former teachers. 

Teachers, too, should be able to make the same, and 
other, comparisons. It is very important that they 
know how their schools compare with other schools, 
how their own work compares with that of other 
teachers, how the achievements of a given class com- 
pare with those of corresponding classes in the same 
and in other schools, and how the ability of a par- 
ticular pupil compares with that of other members of 
the class. To make such comparisons as these, it is 
necessary to have some means of measuring results that 
can be applied alike to all schools, teachers, classes, and 
pupils. We cannot compare very accurately the work 
of one school or class with that of another school or class 



Measuring the Results of Teaching 291 

unless we apply the same standard, the same method 
of measuring, to all cases. 

As a Measure of Progress. A more important 
purpose of measuring the results of teaching, how- 
ever, is to reveal the actual progress pupils make in 
their studies. The rate at which pupils acquire ability 
or advance in their studies is the best test of the effi- 
ciency of teaching in those subjects. To determine 
just how much progress pupils are making, we must 
be able to measure their ability in the various subjects 
at different times. Suppose, for instance, we wish 
to know exactly how much progress a pupil is making 
in learning to write. We would measure his ability 
in writing at the beginning, and again at the middle, 
of the term. The increase in the pupil's ability at 
the middle of the term is the progress he has made 
in the subject during that half year. By a like pro- 
cedure in the other subjects we would have an ac- 
curate measure of the results the pupil had received 
from his school studies. Having found the progress 
made by each pupil, we could easily compute the 
advancement made by any given class, or by the 
school as a whole. Such information every teacher 
ought to have, and ought to want, for his own satis- 
faction and guidance. 

As a Stimulus to Improvement. The third purpose 
of measuring the results of teaching is to stimulate 
teachers, pupils, and school officials to improve the 
work of the school where it is found to be in need of 
improvement. If the teacher finds by these measure- 
ments that the work of certain pupils or classes is not 
up to the standard required, or that the progress made 
during a certain time is not so great as it should be, 
he naturally wants to get better results. Accordingly, 



292 Rural School Management 

he tries to find out what the difficulties are and how 
they may be overcome. Similarly, when pupils learn 
that their work falls below that being done by other 
pupils in the same class, or in corresponding classes 
in other schools, they are stimulated to work more 
vigorously. Almost all pupils like to know that their 
standings and achievements compare favorably with 
those of other children and will often put forth greater 
effort, if necessary, to attain this end. 

In some city schools such measurements are used 
by the superintendent or school board to determine 
the efficiency of the teachers. If the pupils under a 
certain teacher fail repeatedly to reach the standard 
they should attain or to make as much progress as 
they should, the teacher is regarded as less efficient 
than one who gets better results. Usually in such 
cases, steps are taken either to improve the work of 
the teacher or to get a better teacher. 

Summary. Methods of measuring the results of effort put 
forth are employed, now in most lines of business. Efforts are 
being made to devise means of measuring the results of teaching. 
Such measurements are needed for three reasons: (1) as a basis 
of comparing the work of schools, classes, and pupils; (2) as a 
measure of the progress pupils make in their studies ; and (3) as 
a stimulus to teachers, pupils, and school officials to improve 
the work where improvement is needed. 

n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

Having learned why the results of teaching should 
be measured, our next step is to see what difficulties 
arise in making such measurements. 

Some Results Not Measurable. One of the chief 
difficulties lies in the very nature of some of the results 
that come from teaching. We are accustomed to 



Measuring the Results of Teaching 293 

think and speak of two main results, or groups of 
results, of teaching; namely, the learning of certain 
subjects, and the personal influence of the teacher. 
The first of these pertains to the ability the pupils 
acquire in arithmetic, reading, writing, and spelling, 
the number of facts they learn in history, geography, 
agriculture, etc. These are the things we usually 
have in mind when we speak of grades, examinations, 
or any other device for measuring pupils' achievements. 
The other group refers to such matters as ideals, 
habits, and interests which pupils get from a personal 
contact with the teacher. Everywhere the influence 
of the teacher is recognized as a powerful factor in 
helping children to form good physical and moral 
habits, in arousing in them an interest in the things 
that the best people appreciate, and in inspiring them 
with high ideals or noble purposes. These are the 
things which, according to most educators, cannot be 
measured. 

This fact should not stand in the way of measuring 
such school achievements as are capable of being 
measured. It may be, as some educators hold, that 
those teachers who are the best at teaching the various 
subjects are at the same time those whose influence 
is most valuable. If this is true, it is not necessary 
that we measure the personal influence of the teacher. 
At any rate, the measuring of the results in arithmetic, 
reading, spelling, etc., need not prevent the teacher 
from exercising the same helpful influence that he would 
otherwise have over pupils. 

Absence of Standards. A very practical difficulty 
at present lies in the fact that there are no standards 
for measuring the results in several of the subjects. 
Examinations and the usual metht>ds of grading, as 



294 Rural School Management 

we shall see presently, are not accurate measures of 
teaching efficiency. Educators have worked out more 
reliable means for use in some of the subjects, and 
probably, in the course of time, will devise standards 
for all of the subjects. But until this is done, we 
cannot measure accurately all of the work pupils do 
in the school. 

Summary. In the measurement of the results of teaching, two 
difficulties are encountered: (1) Some of the results of teaching 
— those that come from the personal influence of the teacher — 
are generally considered to be incapable of being measured, and 
(2) no standards have been provided for measuring results in 
some of the subjects. 



III. HOW TO MEASURE THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 

That there is a recognized need for some means of 
measuring educational results is evidenced by the 
fact that nearly all teachers employ some method of 
grading or marking pupils' work. On just what 
these grades or marks should be based, or just how 
they should be determined, has long been one of the 
perplexing problems in teaching. Examinations and 
the daily recitations of pupils are at present the most 
widely used means of measuring the results of teach- 
ing. Recently, however, a few educational standards 
or scales have been devised for this purpose. 

1. Examinations 

The giving of examinations is one of the most uni- 
versal of school practices. In a great many instances 
examinations at certain intervals are required by the 
school authorities. There are, perhaps, very few 
schools that do not have regular monthly, quarterly, 



Measuring the Results of Teaching 295 

or term examinations. In addition to these regular 
examinations a great many teachers give other written 
tests at such times as may seem advisable. It is to 
the point, therefore, to inquire as to the purpose or 
value of the examination as a school exercise. 

As a Measure of Results. One of the claims made 
for examinations is that they serve to reveal the extent 
to which pupils have mastered the subjects in which 
they are examined. As applied to elementary schools, 
this view has been abandoned by most educators. 
There is practical agreement among experienced 
teachers now that the usual type of examination is 
not a reliable measure of the results of teaching. 

There are several reasons why examinations are no 
longer regarded as an adequate method of measuring 
the results pupils get from their study. Chief among 
these is the fact that teachers vary widely in their 
estimate of the same examination papers. In one 
instance a paper that was graded 76 per cent by one 
teacher was marked 28 per cent by another. An 
examination paper in arithmetic was once passed 
around among a number of teachers with the request 
that each one should grade it. No teacher knew how 
the paper was rated by the others. The grades ranged 
from 54 per cent to 94 per cent. In a large city school 
ten teachers were selected to grade a set of papers 
written by a group of 67 children. The grades given 
to the same paper ranged, in some instances, from 
20 per cent to 90 per cent. Many similar incidents 
could be cited to show that the grades given on ex- 
amination are by no means an accurate index of what 
the pupil knows about the subject. In each of the 
cases mentioned, the grade which the pupil received 
was determined^ not by what was written on the paper. 



296 Rural School Management 

but by the opinion of the teacher who graded it. A 
pupil who would have been promoted with a high 
grade by one of these teachers would have failed 
utterly under another. Such grades seem to repre- 
sent merely the opinion of the teacher and not the 
actual achievement of the pupil. 

As an Aid to Teaching. If examinations are not a 
reliable method of measuring a child's knowledge of 
a subject, it is to the point to ask whether they should 
ever be used as a school exercise. A great many 
experienced teachers hold that, if rightly used, they 
are an excellent means of making the teaching more 
effective. Their chief function, such teachers assert, 
is to help the pupil get a better understanding of the 
subjects he studies. To make the examination serve 
this purpose, the teacher should have two aims in 
mind : (1) to aid the pupils in organizing or system- 
atizing the facts they have learned, and (2) to help 
them put into actual use the knowledge they have 
acquired. 

Organization of Facts. Ability to organize facts, to 
put them together in their right relations, is one of 
the very important results which all children should 
get from their school work. When the study of a 
topic has been completed, it is a good plan to have 
it reviewed for the specific purpose of giving the pupils 
a view of the topic as a whole, of enabling them to see 
the facts in their logical connections. Suppose, for 
instance, the topic studied is the causes of the Amer- 
ican Revolution. When the facts have been studied, 
the class should review the topic for the purpose of 
getting a better grasp of the whole situation leading 
up to the war. This will necessitate their seeing each 
cause in its relation to all the other causes. Such a 



Measuring the Results of Teaching 297 

review might well be followed by a written lesson, 
or test. But the questions given in the examination 
should be such as would require pupils to employ an 
outline, or systematic order, in their answers. 

Any subject that is made up of units or topics lends 
itself readily to this form of treatment. Nature study, 
geography, history, civics, physiology, agriculture, do- 
mestic science — all of these furnish excellent oppor- 
tunities for exercise in organizing the facts learned. 
Some of the questions used in every examination in 
these subjects should be questions which require the 
pupils to organize the facts they have learned. 

It is evident from the foregoing that it is usually 
well to let the children know that they are to have 
an examination in time to give them an opportunity 
to prepare for it. 

Application of Knowledge. The highest value of 
learning lies in knowing how to use what one learns 
when one needs it. Our best teachers now take ad- 
vantage of every opportunity to get pupils to use the 
knowledge they acquire. The examination is one 
means to this end. But to make it serve this purpose, 
the questions asked should be those that require the 
pupil to use the facts he has learned. An examination 
in arithmetic, for instance, should include problems 
such as children actually meet with in their play and 
handwork or at home, on the farm, and in the kitchen. 
In the solution of such problems pupils must apply 
their knowledge of number combinations, fractions, 
percentage, etc. A good form of examination in spell- 
ing is to have the pupils write something they want to 
tell. Here they must use their knowledge of spelling in 
the situation in which such knowledge is needed; 
namely, in writing words to convey thoughts. The 



298 Rural School Management 

same or a similar exercise would serve as an excellent 
examination in writing and language, for the reason 
that it would require the pupils to apply in a real 
situation their ability to write and their knowledge 
of language forms. 

Thus we see that the true function of the examina- 
tion is to help the teacher get results rather than to 
measure the results obtained. It serves this function 
best when the teacher uses it as an exercise in the 
organization and use of what pupils learn. Children 
should be trained, if possible, to look upon the examina- 
tion as a means of helping them to get a better under- 
standing of the things they study and not as an exer- 
cise to test their fitness for promotion. 

Summary. The giving of examinations is practiced in nearly 
all schools. As a means of measuring the results of teaching, 
the examination is defective for several reasons, the most important 
of which is the fact that the grades given by teachers are merely 
the expression of the teacher's opinion and not an accurate meas- 
ure of the pupil's work. The true function of the examination is 
to make the teaching more effective by (1) training pupils to 
organize their knowledge, and (2) helping them to apply the 
knowledge and ability they acquire through study. 

2. Daily Recitations 

It is quite common now for teachers to attach 
more importance to the daily class work of pupils 
than to the results of examinations. The kind of 
work children do from day to day in their regular 
recitations is regarded as a better index of what they 
are getting from the school than are the occasional 
examinations. 

As a Measure of Results. But, like examinations, 
the recitation, as a method of measuring educational 



Measuring the Results of Teaching 299 

results, is inaccurate and unreliable. In the first 
place, the teacher's estimate of a pupil's class work 
is very largely a matter of personal opinion, and 
opinions sometimes differ very widely. In one in- 
stance ten teachers were asked to rate the oral reading 
of a group of pupils. The grading of the same read- 
ing ranged from 33 per cent to 100 per cent. Some 
of these grades were necessarily very inaccurate. In 
the second place, the teacher's judgment of a pupil's 
work is likely to be unconsciously influenced by the 
child's conduct, or by the teacher's regard for his 
parents, or by a single piece of exceptionally good or 
exceptionally poor work. All such factors tend, of 
course, to destroy the accuracy of the grades given 
the pupil. A third difficulty arises when teachers 
adopt the plan of recording a grade for every recita- 
tion a pupil makes. This practice is oTDJectionable for 
two reasons: (1) It involves too much bookkeeping. 
The time and attention given to the recording of 
grades during a recitation period necessarily detracts 
from the effectiveness of the teaching. The recitation 
period is a time for teaching, and the work in hand 
should have the undivided attention of both teacher 
and pupils. (2) The practice places too much em- 
phasis on grades. It stimulates pupils to study solely 
for the purpose of reciting well. The desire on the 
part of a pupil to get a good grade is, within certain 
limits, a worthy motive, but it should never become 
the sole end or purpose of study. Furthermore, under 
this plan the recitation is likely to degenerate into the 
mere " hearing of lessons " — the asking of questions 
by the teacher and the giving of memorized answers 
by the pupils. Such a method defeats the main pur- 
poses of the recitation. 



300 Rural School Management 

As an Aid to Teaching. Very clearly, then, the daily 
recitation cannot be regarded as a thoroughly reliable 
measure of the efficiency of the teaching. Never- 
theless, it has an especially important place in the 
work of the school. The recitation, like the examina- 
tion, is primarily a teaching process, a means of help- 
ing children to learn more effectively than they other- 
wise could learn. As an aid to teaching it has several 
functions, four of which are so important that they 
need special emphasis. These are : (1) to help pupils 
learn how to study; (2) to stimulate pupils to think 
and to train them in the expression of their thoughts ; 
(3) to make the necessary drill work interesting to 
pupils ; and (4) to correct any errors pupils make and 
to explain any difficulties they encounter in the prep- 
aration of their lessons. 

Learning How to Study. Ability to study a lesson 
or a book in such a way as to get the thought most 
effectively is one of the most valuable results pupils 
can get from their school training. And yet it is a 
result which few schools achieve. Perhaps one of the 
main reasons for this failure is the fact that the teacher's 
time is so taken up with hearing lessons recited that 
he has no time to teach children how to study. It is 
now believed that the recitation period is the best 
time to give pupils this help. 

In teaching pupils how to study, some such method 
as the following might be used. First, lead the chil- 
dren to discover the main problem or thought in the 
lesson and get them to state it in their own language. 
For the next step, try to discover how the author 
divides the main problem or thought ; that is, try to 
select and number the principal subdivisions of the 
topic under consideration. Then find the facts sub- 



Measuring the Results of Teaching 301 

mitted by the author in support or explanation of 
each subdivision. Lead the pupils to compare the 
facts given to see which are really important and which 
are unimportant. And, finally, get the children to 
add thoughts of their own bearing on the topics under 
consideration. According to this method studying 
consists in (a) finding the main problem or thought 
in the lesson; (b) organizing the facts submitted; 
(c) judging the importance or value of these facts; 
and (d) adding children's own thoughts to those given 
in the text. After this process has been carried on 
for a few minutes, the teacher may ask the pupils to 
finish the study of the lesson at their seats. This 
constitutes the assignment for the next day. 

Some subjects, such as arithmetic, spelling, and 
writing, do not admit of this method of treatment. 
Neither is it meant that all recitations in the subjects 
to which this method does apply should be of this 
nature. But it is a good plan for teacher and pupils 
to study a lesson together occasionally, even fre- 
quently, to th^ end that the children may learn how 
to study. 

Stimulating Thought and Expression. A study- 
recitation, such as we have just described, is an ex- 
cellent exercise in thinking and in expressing thought 
on the part of pupils. In such an exercise the children 
will form judgments as to what the main problem is, 
how the facts are organized, which facts are most 
important, etc. But there are other ways in which 
the recitation may be used to stimulate thinking. 
The development lesson is an excellent means to this 
end. This is a recitation in which the pupils are led 
by careful questions or hints to discover certain facts 
for themselves. As an illustration, suppose the teacher 



302 Rural School Management 

wants his pupils to know why MinneapoHs is the 
largest flour-milling center in the United States. He 
could tell them the reasons outright. But it is a far 
better plan to get the pupils to think out and suggest 
reasons and then examine these to see if they offer 
a satisfactory explanation. If the pupils do not hit 
upon the correct reasons, the teacher may ask a few 
questions that will lead them to see (a) what conditions 
are necessary to make a flour-mill center, and (6) how 
Minneapolis has the advantage of other cities in these 
respects. 

The topical method of recitation affords a good 
opportunity for training in the expression of thought. 
It is a good plan frequently to let pupils tell all they 
have learned about a given topic. In preparation for 
the recitation the pupil should be encouraged to arrange 
the things he wishes to tell according to some definite 
outline and to follow this order when called upon to 
recite. It will add greatly to the value of this exercise 
if what the pupil tells is both new and interesting to 
the other members of the class. 

Making Drills Interesting. The main purpose of 
some recitations is to make interesting the drills that 
are necessary in order that certain facts may become 
habitual or automatic. Number games, language 
games, etc., are means to this end. Psychologists 
have found that merely repeating a thing has very 
little value in making it habitual. The repetitions, 
they say, must be interesting and pleasurable. Hence 
it is necessary to connect the repetitions with some- 
thing the children like to do. 

Correcting Errors and Overcoming Difficulties. It 
frequently happens that pupils make mistakes or get 
wrong impressions in the preparation of their lessons, 



Measuring the Results of Teaching 303 

or encounter difficulties they cannot overcome. Some- 
times they cannot understand what they study. 
Hence, they learn merely the words of their lessons 
without getting the meaning. The recitation affords 
the teacher an opportunity to give needed help along 
these lines. The outline or organization of the lesson 
which pupils make at their seats should be checked up 
in class. Sometimes the teacher must explain by 
means of illustrations, objects, drawings, etc., the 
points pupils are not able to understand. 

Summary. The daily recitation is not an adequate measure 
of the results of teaching. That is not its true function. Its 
true function is to help pupils get better results from their work. 
Among the purposes it ought to accomplish are: (1) to help 
pupils learn how to study; (2) to stimulate them to think and 
to express their thoughts; (3) to make necessary drill work in- 
teresting; and (4) to give the teacher an opportunity to correct 
the errors pupils make and to explain the difficulties they en- 
counter. 

8. Objective Standards 

Meaning of Objective Standards. Examinations 
and daily recitations are excellent aids to teaching. 
Essentially they are means of enabling pupils to get 
the best results from their work. But as an accurate 
measure of the actual achievements of pupils, both 
are defective. The chief defect lies in the fact that a 
grade based on either an examination or daily class 
work is merely the expression of the personal opinion 
of the teacher. Since teachers often differ in their 
opinions of what constitutes good school work, the 
grades given by different teachers on the same work 
will necessarily differ. Hence, to measure the work 
of a pupil or a school accurately, we must have a 
standard or a scale that is the same for all teachers. 



304 Rural School Management 

When people wish to measiire the length of a room, 
they employ a measuring stick. When they wish to 
know the weight of an object, they employ a balance. 
In each of these cases the standard or scale used lies 
outside of the person who uses it. It does not rest 
on opinion. The results are the same for all who 
use the scale correctly. Such standards are said to 
be objective. 

Objective Standards for School Work. A great 
many of our leading educators now believe that we 
ought to have, and can have, objective standards for 
measuring the results of teaching the various school 
subjects. Several such scales have already been 
constructed and are being used in a great many schools. 
The common school subjects for which scales are now 
available are arithmetic, reading, spelling, writing, 
composition, and drawing. Scales for the other sub- 
jects are likely to appear from time to time. 

How to Use the Scales. The scales for arithmetic, 
reading, and spelling consist of a series of examples, 
reading exercises, and lists of words which are given 
to pupils according to specific directions, the results 
of each pupil's work being scored or marked in the 
manner prescribed in the test. By comparing a 
pupil's score with the average or median score for his 
grade, it is possible to tell how the pupil ranks in that 
subject. 

The scales for writing and drawing consist of samples 
of writing and drawing, each of which has a definite 
value or rating. A pupil's ability in these subjects 
is measured by comparing his writing and drawing 
with the test samples. 

In schools where such scales are used the usual 
practice is to give the tests at the middle and at the 



Measuring the Results of Teaching 305 

close of the school year. These tests do not take the 
place of the educative type of examinations we have 
previously described. They are given primarily to 
guide the teacher. They enable him to compare the 
work of his school with that done in other schools, to 
note just how much progress pupils have made in the 
interval between the tests, and to see just what sub- 
jects and pupils, if any, need more attention. Com- 
plete instructions for giving the tests and scoring the 
results are usually sent along with the test material. 
For information as to what scales to use and where 
they may be obtained, the teacher should write to 
the department of education of his nearest state 
normal school or to the teachers' college of his state 
university. 

Summary. Objective standards or scales are devices which 
have been constructed to enable teachers to measure more ac- 
curately the work done in certain subjects. Every teacher 
should write to his state normal school or university for a list 
of the scales to use and should apply these to his school at least 
twice each year. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Bagley : Classroom Management, Chapter XV. 
Charters : Teaching the Common Branches, Chapter XVII. 
Strayer : A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapters IX 
and X. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. State clearly just why a farmer should be able to measure 
the results of each year's work on his farm. 

2. Do you think it is as important that the results of each 
year's work in school should be measured? Why? 

3. Why is it harder to measure the results of school work than 
it is to measure the results of farm work? 

4. If it is possible to* procure a pupil's examination paper, 
perform the following experiment : Let each member of your 



306 Rural School Management 

class grade the paper. See that no member of the class knows 
the mark given by any other member until all have finished. 
Then compare the grades given by the different members of the 
class. What is this experiment intended to illustrate? 

5. Give three reasons not stated in the text why examinations 
should not be used as the sole basis for promoting pupils. 

6. Prepare an outline for the study of the geography of your 
own state suitable for use in the seventh grade. State five ques- 
tions you would use in an examination on the work outlined. 

7. Outline the section in this chapter which deals with the 
daily recitation. 

8. What purposes besides those mentioned in the text should 
the daily recitation serve? 

9. Demonstrate the methods of giving the objective tests and 
scoring the results in (1) arithmetic, (2) reading, (3) spelling, 
(4) writing. 

10. Which of the exercises in this list are "organization" and 
which are "application" exercises? 



CHAPTER XIV 
RECORDS AND REPORTS 

L FUNCTIONS OF RECORDS AND REPORTS 

The keeping of records and the making of reports 
constitute an important phase of school management. 
The records that seem most necessary for the success- 
ful management of rural schools are those that pertain 
to the school census, the attendance and scholarship 
of pupils, the physical condition of the children, and 
the library. Reports are usually made to the school 
board at the end of each month and at the close of 
the term, and to the parents of the pupils at such 
intervals as may be decided upon. 

To Convey Accurate Information. The primary 
function of records and reports is to convey accurate 
information concerning the school. The people of 
the community who support the school are entitled 
to know just how well it is performing the work for 
which it is maintained. It is their right and their 
duty to know how many children there are in the 
district who are entitled to receive instruction in the 
school, to what extent the school is being attended by 
those who are entitled to attend it, just what progress 
is being made by those in attendance, and what the 
school has and what it needs in the way of library 
and other equipment. 

Without such information the school board and tax- 
payers have no means of judging of the efficiency of 

307 



308 Rural School Management 

their school. They have no way of comparing it 
with other schools. They cannot know how the work 
and the condition of the school under one teacher's 
management compare with the work and conditions 
under former teachers. In a word, they have no way 
of knowing whether they are getting as much benefit 
from the money expended as they ought to receive. 
True, the teacher might be able to furnish some in- 
formation about the school, but, without recourse to 
records, even the teacher's knowledge would consist 
more of general impressions than of accurate facts. 
General impressions are not sufficient data on which 
to base a judgment of the efficiency of the school. 
School boards and the public in general need more 
accurate information. They need to know the facts 
about the school — facts that they can examine at 
their leisure and compare, and from which they can 
draw conclusions. 

To Arouse Interest in the School. If school officials 
and patrons are given such information about the 
school as we have referred to, the result will be, in 
many instances, a deeper interest in the school. To 
arouse such an interest is one of the reasons for making 
reports. Indifference on the part of patrons is often 
due to lack of information about the school. It is 
necessary, therefore, that we have an accurate record 
of the things that are important about the affairs and 
condition of the school and that we make these facts 
known to the public. A report that fails to arouse 
any interest in the school fails to accomplish one of 
its main functions. 

To Lead to Improvement. The final function of 
records and reports is to lead to the adoption or the 
continuance of the measures necessary to make the 



Records and Reports 309 

school most efficient. There are, perhaps, very few- 
schools that are not in need of improvement in some 
respect. But the first step toward improvement is 
to know the conditions that exist at present. These 
conditions are, or ought to be, revealed through the 
school records and reports. Furthermore, the reports 
ought to indicate just what improvements are needed. 
For instance, a report ought to state not only what 
the average daily attendance for a given month is, 
but also what it should have been. In addition to 
giving the number of volumes in the library, the 
report ought to state the number needed to enable the 
school to do its work to the best advantage. By 
calling attention to present conditions and also to 
the most urgent needs, records and reports ought 
to be instrumental in bringing about improvement 
in those respects in which the school shows the greatest 
weakness. 

Summary. School records and reports are intended to ac- 
complish three main purposes : (1) to furnish to school officials 
and patrons accurate information concerning the school ; (2) to 
arouse a deeper interest in the school ; and (3) to bring about 
such improvements as are shown to be needed. 

n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

It is a matter of common knowledge among ex- 
perienced teachers that school records and reports 
fail, in most cases, to accomplish the purposes for 
which they are intended. A few of the reasons for 
this failure are discussed in the following paragraphs. 

Insufficient Publicity. School records and reports 
can have very little effect in arousing a deeper interest 
or in bringing about needed improvements, if the facts 
they disclose are not made public. As a matter of 



310 Rural School Management 

fact, rural school records and reports are not given 
very wide publicity. The teacher's- monthly and 
term reports are made to the school board or the 
county superintendent. In most instances they are 
filed away and their contents are never made known 
to the community at large. It is known that in 
some cases even the members of the school board do 
not read the reports. The traditional report cards 
which teachers give to pupils at certain intervals are 
intended to reach the patrons. But each of these 
cards contains only the scholarship and attendance 
record of the pupil to whom it is given. Consequently 
no information about the school as a whole can be 
obtained from this source. In general, then, the facts 
that pertain to the work or condition or needs of the 
school do not reach the public through the formal or 
regular reports. 

There are, however, occasional exceptions to this 
rule. A few teachers have their reports published in 
the local newspaper. This is an excellent practice 
and should become more common than it is at present. 
In some city districts school boards are required by 
law to publish the financial report of the school, and 
in many rural schools these facts are made known at 
the annual school meetings. But there are other 
facts that are just as important and ought to be just 
as interesting as these financial statistics. To know 
what the school is costing without knowing what 
it is doing for the community is not very enlightening. 
Every patron who helps to support the school ought 
to know how many pupils are enumerated in the dis- 
trict, how many of these are enrolled in the school, 
what percentage of the pupils are in attendance every 
day, how many pupils are promoted at the end of the 



Records and Reports 311 

term and how many are retained, and so on. In other 
words, every patron and taxpayer is entitled to have 
a true picture of just what the school is doing for the 
community. 

Significant Facts Not Clear. Another difficulty with 
most rural school reports lies in their failure to make 
the most significant facts about the school stand out 
clearly and distinctly. Among the items usually 
contained in a regular report are such as these : mmi- 
ber of boys enrolled, number of girls enrolled, total 
number of days attended, average daily attendance, 
etc. These facts are certainly important, but taken 
alone, their importance is not apparent, does not 
stand out clearly. To report that there are five or 
ten boys enrolled is almost meaningless unless one 
knows how many boys there are in the district who 
ought to be enrolled. The number of pupils enrolled 
may be all or it may be only half of those enumerated, 
and it is very important that people should know 
which it is. Again, the average daily attendance 
has much more significance when one knows how 
many pupils ought to have been in attendance, or 
what the attendance was for the last month or for 
the corresponding month last year. Does the aver- 
age attendance for a given month indicate that the 
school is drawing the pupils, or does it indicate the 
opposite? Does it signify growth and improvement, 
or a decline in the attendance? These are some of 
the things a patron ought to know about his school, 
but they are not revealed in the regular reports as 
they are usually made. The illustrations will serve 
to explain why so many school reports are not very 
interesting, or effective in stimulating a desire for 
school improvement. 



312 Rural School Management 

Records Not Continuous. In general the records 
kept in rural schools are for one year only and have 
no connection with the records for previous years. 
Both the attendance and scholarship records of pupils 
are usually kept in the daily register. Every year 
either a new register is procured or some new pages 
in the old one are used. This method makes it ex- 
tremely difficult to compare the record for one year 
with those for other years. A pupil's report card 
may show that he has failed in a given subject this 
year, but it does not show what he did in the subject 
last year or the year before. The report of the pupil's 
attendance shows how many days he was present 
during the present term, but it often requires con- 
siderable effort to discover how many days he was 
present last term or whether he is in the habit of 
attending regularly. What we need is a continuous 
record, a complete history of a pupil's work from the 
time he enters the school until he graduates or with- 
draws from it. 

Furthermore, the present method results frequently 
in the loss of records. Old registers and reports are 
sometimes destroyed or misplaced. Consequently, it 
is impossible, in some instances, to compare the records 
of one year with those of former years. In order to 
have a continuous record of the school's work, we 
need a method of recording and preserving the facts 
that will make them permanent. 

Lack of Uniformity. A fourth difficulty is the fact 
that the methods of keeping records and making re- 
ports are not the same in all schools. This condition 
is a serious handicap to educators who wish to make 
a careful study of different schools and school systems. 
In order to compare the work of two or more schools. 



Records and Reports 313 

it is necessary to have the same information con- 
cerning the schools. But this is extremely difficult, 
if not impossible, when the methods of keeping records 
and reporting the facts are not uniform in the various 
schools. 

Summary. School records and reports often fail to accomplish 
the purposes for which they are intended. Some of the reasons 
for this failure are : (1) They are not given sufficient publicity ; 
(2) they do not bring out the facts about the school that are most 
significant; (3) they are not continuous for a number of years; 
and (4) they are not uniform in the various schools. 



iii. how to keep records and make reports 
1. The Keeping of Records 

The Daily Register. The daily register constitutes 
one of the most important of school records. It is a 
book in which are recorded the name, age, attendance, 
and, in most cases, the scholarship grades, of the 
pupils enrolled in the school. The pages are so ruled 
that there is first a space for enrolling the names; 
opposite each name, spaces for recording the pupil's 
age and attendance ; also, appropriate places for sum- 
maries, such as total number of days attended, final 
grade in the various subjects, etc. 

The keeping of the daily register is very important. 
In every school some sort of register must be kept, 
for it contains most of the data from which the school 
reports are made. But as a final record of the at- 
tendance and scholarship of pupils, it is not adequate 
for three reasons : (1) It does not constitute a con- 
venient, permanent, continuous record of a pupil's 
school career ; (2) the facts are not arranged in such a 
way as to impress one with their real significance; 



314 Rural School Management 

and (3), owing to the different styles or kinds of regis- 
ters in use, the information recorded is not always 
uniform in different schools. 

Registers differ so greatly that no specific directions 
as to how to use them can be given here. Usually, 
complete and definite instructions for their use are 
printed in the registers. 

The School Census. The school census is a record 
containing the name, age, sex, color, and the name 
of the parent or guardian, of every person of school 
age in the district. The census is usually taken by 
the district clerk or by some one employed for that 
purpose by the school board. 

Such a record of school children is necessary for 
three reasons. First. In those states where the state 
school funds are apportioned on the basis of the enu- 
meration, it is very necessary to know how many chil- 
dren there are of school age in order to compute the 
district's share of the funds. Second. Such a list 
furnishes school authorities with the names of all 
children in the district who come within the age limit 
of the compulsory attendance law. A comparison of the 
names of the children enrolled in the school with the 
school census reveals the names of all parents or 
guardians who are not complying with the attendance 
law. An investigation can then be made to ascertain 
the reasons why such parents are not sending their 
children to school. Third. A still wider purpose of 
the census is to serve as a means of determining the 
efficiency of the school with reference to attendance. 
Every teacher should have a copy of the enumeration 
list. On this list he should check off the names of all 
who have graduated or married ; those, if any, who 
are blind, deaf, feeble-minded, or otherwise physically 



Records and Reports 315 

or mentally debarred from the school ; and those who 
are attending an approved private school or have 
moved out of the district. This information the 
teacher can easily get from the district clerk or from 
some member of the school board. All children 
whose names are left on the list should be in the school. 
Even the attainment of the compulsory age limit is 
not, of itself, a sufficient reason for dropping out of 
school. If any of those who ought to be in school 
drop out or fail to enroll, it is the teacher's duty to 
learn the reasons for their doing so and to find some 
means, if possible, of inducing them to continue their 
school work. One of the tests of the efficiency of a 
school is the extent to which it holds pupils until they 
graduate. 

To get a true measure of the school with reference 
to attendance, we should compare the actual attend- 
ance with the school census, corrected as we have 
indicated. To illustrate, suppose there are twenty- 
five children in the district who ought to be in school 
and that the average daily attendance is only fifteen. 
The actual attendance in this case is only sixty per 
cent of what it ought to be. There may be very good 
reasons why the percentage is so low, but the school 
authorities ought to know what these reasons are. 
Such a use of the census will reveal facts that are very 
important and often surprising both to teachers and 
to patrons. 

The Cumulative Record Card. Educators have long 
recognized the need for more adequate school records. 
With a view to overcoming such difficulties as we 
have named, a committee of leading school men was 
appointed by the National Education Association to 
study the problem very carefully and to devise, if 



316 



Rural School Management 



possible, a better system of record-keeping. This 
committee recommended, among other things, the 
use of a cumulative record card system for keeping 
the records of individual pupils. This system was 
constructed primarily for use in city schools, but the 
cards can be used in rural schools as well. An earnest 
effort is being made to get all schools to adopt this 
system. 

The plan consists in having a separate card for each 
pupil. The form recommended by the committee of 
the National Education Association is shown in the 
accompanying illustrations. 



1. Last name 2. First name and initial 



3. Place of birth 4. Dateof Birth 5. Vaccinated 



6. Name of parent 
or guardian 



7. Occupation of parent or 

guardian 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOL REC- 
ORD SYSTEM— ADMISSION, 
DISCHARGE, AND PROMO- 
TION CARD 



To be kept for every pupil 
and sent with the pupil 
when he is transferred to 
any school, either public 
or private, in the city or 
outside the city. Great 
care should be used to 
have the names COM- 
PLETE and CORRECT. 
Write all dates as follows: 
1912-9-25 



8. RESIDENCE. (Use one column at a time. 
Give new residence when pupil is transferred.) 


9. Date of 
Discharge 


10. Age 
Years Months 











































When a pupil is permanently discharged to work, to remain at home, or be- 
cause of death, permanent illness, or commitment to an institution, this card 
is to be returned to the principal's office and a full statement of the cause of 
the pupil's discharge is to be made in the blank space remaining above. 

8-304 



Front — Admission Card 



Records and Reports 



317 



1 


ELEMENTARY SCHOOL RECORD SYSTEM-PROMOTION RECORD 

This card is to pass from teacher to teacher or from school to 
school as the pupil is promoted or transferred. It is to be filled 
out and sent to the principal's office when any change is made re- 
quiring a change in the office records. It is then to be sent to the 
teacher who has the pupil. 


a 

m 


b 

§ 


c 

Age Sept. 1 
Years Month 


d 

O 


e 1 f 

1 :ii 


g i h 

■^ \ 1 

» 1 o 
W 1 O 


i 

9" 

O 
-g 










\ 

















































































































































— 


— 


























1 


















j 







Reverse — Promotion Record 



The card is six inches long and four inches wide. 
One side (front) contains the name of the pupil, 
place and date of his birth, name and occupation of 
his parents or guardian, etc. — information about the 
pupil which the school ought to have on record. The 
other side (reverse) contains a continuous record 
of the pupil's progress through school. It shows the 
different schools attended, the date of entering each, 
age at or near the opening of each school term, the 
number of times promoted or " failed,'' the number 
of days attended each year, the condition of his health, 
his conduct, and general scholarship. 



318 Rural School Management 

The method of using the card is very simple. When 
a pupil enters school for the first time, his last name, 
first name and initial, place of birth, date of birth, etc., 
are recorded on the admission card. (In rural schools 
the residence item may be omitted.) The name of 
the school, the date on which the pupil enters, his age 
in years and months on the first of September, and 
the grade in which he is classed are recorded in their 
proper columns on the reverse side of the card. (In 
one-room schools the " room " column will be left 
blank.) When the pupil withdraws from the school 
permanently, the date of withdrawal and the pupil's 
age at the time are recorded in the columns provided 
for these items on the front side of the card. If he 
goes to another school, he takes the card and gives it 
to the new teacher. This teacher enters the name of 
the school and the date of the pupil's admission in 
columns '' a " and " b " on the reverse side of the 
card. This process is repeated and similar entries made 
as often as the pupil changes his residence during his 
school course. At the end of each year the pupil's 
attendance, health, conduct, and scholarship records 
are entered in their respective columns. 

In schools where this method is used, the cards are 
filed alphabetically in a cabinet or case made for the 
purpose. This gives the school a complete, conven- 
iently arranged record of every pupil for all of the 
years he remains in school. This record can be con- 
sulted at any time the information is needed to throw 
light on any question that arises in connection with 
the work of any pupil. The information contained 
on these cards is valuable to the teacher or to any one 
else who is interested in such problems as the relation 
of attendance to scholarship, the relation of health to 



Records and Reports 



319 



scholarship, the causes of pupils' withdrawal from 
school, the relation of age to withdrawal, and many 
others. 

Physical Condition of Pupils. Every school should 
have a more detailed statement of the physical condition 
of the pupils than can be placed on the cumulative 
record card. It is the custom in many schools to 
record on a separate card the results of the medical 
inspection of each pupil. We have already learned 
that the physical examination of school children may 
be made either by the teacher or by a special health 
inspector such as a physician or a nurse. There is at 
present no standard form of card for recording the 
results of these examinations. If a regular medical 
inspector is employed, he will prescribe the kind of 
card to use. Where the examinations are made by 
the teacher, some such form as the following may be 
used : 

PHYSICAL RECORD 

Health Record of ; Sex ; Born 



Date 

OP 

Exami- 
nation 


Vision 


Hearing 


Teeth 


Nose 

AND 

Throat 


General 
Health 


Right 


Left 


Right 


Left 



































































































































Front — Record of Examinations 



320 



Rural School Management 



REMARKS 

The child has had the following diseases at the age indicated 
below : 



Chicken pox at the age of . . 
Diphtheria at the age of . . . 

Measles at the age of 

Tonsillitis at the age of ... . 

Mumps at the age of 

Scarlet fever at the age of . . 

PAREN1 


Whooping cough at the age of ... . 

Pneumonia at the age of 

Typhoid at the age of 

Smallpox at the age of 

Tuberculosis at the age of 

Infantile par. at the age of 

rS NOTIFIED 


Date 


Recommendations Made 























Reverse — Record of Diseases, etc. 

On one side of the card are recorded the date of the 
examination, the keenness of the vision of each eye, 
the hearing abiHty of each ear, the condition of 
the teeth, the condition of the nose and throat, and 
the general health. The other side contains a Hst 
of the diseases the child has had, the age at which 
he had each, and the recommendations made to his 
parents. 

When the physical record card is filed along with 
the cumulative record card, the school has a fairly 
complete description and history of each pupil. With 
such records at hand, it is easily possible to find almost 
any fact one may wish to know about the physical 



Records and Reports 321 

condition, attendance, promotion, or scholarship of 
any pupil at any time in his school career. 

Library Statistics. As regards teaching equipment, 
the library is recognized as the greatest aid to the 
work of the school. There are several reasons why 
accurate information concerning the library should be 
kept in every school. First. The teacher needs to 
know just what material he has at hand to work with. 
Second. The school board and patrons should be in- 
formed as to how well their school is supplied with 
the material needed to enable it to do its work effec- 
tively. Third. State school inspectors and county 
superintendents always want accurate information 
about the library. They should be able to get such 
information from the records kept in the school. 

The library statistics most needed are (1) a general 
catalogue of all the books, (2) special lists of those 
used in each grade, and (3) a summary showing the 
main classes of books and the number of volumes in 
each class. 

In large libraries the card catalogue and decimal 
system of classification are usually employed. To 
use this system successfully one must have had some 
training in library management. For rural schools a 
simpler method of cataloguing the books will suffice. 
The method most generally employed is to enter in a 
blank book procured for the purpose the title, the 
name of the author, the name and address of the 
publisher, the cost, and the date of purchase, of each 
book in the hbrary. By reference to this catalogue 
the teacher can tell at once the number of books in 
the library. He can easily find also the value and the 
name of the publisher of any book that may be de- 
stroyed or lost. 



322 Rural School Management 

In addition to this general catalogue there should 
be a list of the books that are used in each grade. 
And, finally, there should be a summary showing the 
number of volumes of (1) general reference works, 
such as dictionaries and encyclopedias, (2) history and 
biography, (3) references on science, (4) literature 
references, (5) works of fiction, and any other classes 
of books the library may contain. 

Summary. The records most essential to the successful man- 
agement of the school are (1) the daily register, (2) the school 
census, (3) the cumulative record card, (4) the physical record 
card, and (5) library statistics. 

2. The Making of Reports 

The Teacher's Monthly Report. In practically all 
schools teachers are required to make monthly reports 
to the school board. There is as yet no generally 
accepted form for this report. In some of the states 
blank forms for this purpose are furnished to all rural 
schools through the state superintendent's office. In 
other states the matter is left in the hands of county 
superintendents. Consequently, the form of the re- 
port varies with different states and frequently with 
different counties and schools in the same state. 

Sample Forms. Following is the form of report 
used in one of the states where the blank forms are 
supplied through the state superintendent's office : 

1. Enrollment : white — male, ; female, ; 

total, : colored — male, ; female, ; total, . . . . ; 

grand total, 

2. Total no. of days' attendance by all pupils for the 
month, ; average daily attendance, 

3. No. attending every day, ; No. absent five or 

more days, 



Records and Reports 323 

4. No. of cases of tardiness, ; truancy, ; 

corporal punishment, 

5. No. of visitors, parents, ; school officers, ; 

total, 

6. Recommendations : 



A report of this type is so simple that it requires al- 
most no comment. The second item is, perhaps, the 
only one that needs any explanation. The total num- 
ber of days' attendance by all pupils is found by 
adding the attendance of all pupils for the month. 
Suppose one pupil attends 20 days, another 18, another 
16, another 12, and so on through the roll. The sum 
of all of these numbers is the total attendance. And 
this total attendance, divided by the number of days 
school was taught during the month, gives the average 
daily attendance. 

In another state a somewhat more elaborate form 
of report is required. It is as follows : 

a. No. of pupils enrolled Boys Girls 

b. No. of days school was taught (including all days for which 
pay will be received) 

c. Aggregate days of teaching 

d. Aggregate attendance 

e. Aggregate absence 

/. Aggregate non-membership 

g. Average daily attendance 

h. Per cent of attendance 

i. Cases of tardiness 

j. No. cases of truancy 

k. No. pupils entered during month 

I. No. pupils left during month 

m. No. pupils received by transfer during month 

n. No. pupils perfect in attendance during month 

A few of the terms used in this form of report may 
need explanation. 



324 Rural School Management 

The aggregate days of teaching is found by multiply- 
ing the total enrollment by the number of days school 
was taught during the month. For instance, if there 
are 27 pupils enrolled and the school was in session 
20 days, the aggregate days of teaching is 540. 

Aggregate attendance means the total number of 
days attended by all pupils. 

Aggregate absence and aggregate non-memhership are 
explained as follows : In the state where this form of 
report is used, a pupil who is out of school five or 
more consecutive days after enrolling, is regarded as 
not " belonging " to the school. If he returns later, 
he is marked as " entering." The number of school 
days between the beginning of his absence and his 
return to school is known as non-membership. If 
the pupil is out of school less than five consecutive 
days, it is called absence. As an illustration, suppose 
a pupil is in school the first nine days, is out of school 
the next six days, and then returns and completes the 
month. The six days the pupil was out constitute a 
period of non-membership. If the number had been 
less than five, however, the pupil would have been re- 
garded as absent. Aggregate non-membership, there- 
fore, is the total number of days absent by all pupils 
in those cases only in which the absence is continuous 
for five or more days. Accordingly, aggregate ab- 
sence is the total number of days absent by all pupils in 
those cases in which the absence is for less than five days. 

The average daily attendance is found by dividing the 
aggregate attendance (total number of days attended) 
by the number of days school was taught. 

The per cent of attendance is computed by " dividing 
the aggregate attendance by the aggregate attendance 
plus the aggregate absence." This means that all 



Records and Reports 325 

cases of non-membership are omitted in finding the 
percentage of pupils who attend the school. A simple 
little illustration will make this ^oint clear. Suppose 
there are seven pupils enrolled in the school with 
attendance records as follows : 

(1) Present 19 days, absent 1 day 

(2) Present 18 days, absent 2 days 

(3) Present 20 days, absent days 

(4) Present 15 days, non-member 5 days 

(5) Present 14 days, non-member 6 days 

(6) Present 16 days, absent 4 days 

(7) Present 18 days, absent 2 days 

From these data it is found that the aggregate at- 
tendance is 120 days; the aggregate absence is 9 
days; the aggregate non-membership is 11 days; 
the average daily attendance (120 divided by 20) is 
6; and the percentage of attendance (120 divided by 
120 plus 9) is 93. Thus it is seen that the 11 days of 
non-membership are not taken into account in com- 
puting the percentage of attendance. 

Criticisms. There is fairly general agreement that 
such reports as we have described are not altogether 
satisfactory. In the first place, neither type of report 
takes into account, in any way, the pupils who are not 
enrolled in the school. Patrons have no way of know- 
ing from the report just how well the school is reach- 
ing the boys and girls of the community who ought to 
be in attendance. In the second place, some of the 
terms used, especially in the second tj^e of report, 
are not readily understood by patrons and hence 
convey no definite information about the school. 
There are, perhaps, very few patrons who know what 
is meant by aggregate days of teaching and aggregate 
non-membership, or just what bearing such matters 



326 Rural School Management 

have on the efficiency of the school. Most patrons 
will probably not understand the distinction between 
absence and non-membership or why such a distinc- 
tion should be made. A third criticism is that some 
of the facts may tend to give a wrong impression of 
the efficiency of the school. In the illustration given 
above, the percentage of attendance was found to be 93. 
Ordinarily, this would be interpreted to mean a very 
efficient school as regards attendance. But, as a 
matter of fact, the actual attendance in the school 
may have been very small as compared with the 
number who should have been attending. 

What the Teacher Can Do. In making his reports to 
the school board the teacher must always use the form of 
report required by the school authorities. But there are 
some ways in which he may increase the effectiveness of 
these reports and accomplish more fully the purposes for 
which reports are made. First. He can have the re- 
ports published in the local newspaper as a part of the 
school news. This will give them greater publicity. 
Second. He can include in the school news various 
other matters of interest about the school. Such ad- 
ditional items as the following, for instance, will give 
patrons a fairly accurate description of their school and 
will help to arouse a deeper interest in its work. 

1. Number of pupils in the district who ought to be in school. 

2. Percentage of the actual attendance of those who ought to 
be in attendance. 

3. The attendance as compared with that of last month or the 
corresponding month of last year. 

4. Improvements in the way of repairs, equipment, etc., made 
during the month. 

5. Additional improvements needed. 

6. Important events held at the school during the month. 

7. Comments on the regular work being done by pupils. 



Records and Reports 327 

The Teacher's Term Report. The contents of the 
term report, like those of the monthly report, vary 
with different states. Owing to the elaborate character 
of these reports it is not practicable to reproduce 
in this book a sample of the forms used. In gen- 
eral, the facts reported fall under the headings listed 
below : 

1. Enrollment Statistics : white — male, female, total ; colored 
— male, female, total ; grand total. 

2. Attendance Statistics: total number days' attendance, 
average daily attendance, percentage of attendance, tardiness, 
truancies, etc. 

3. Library Statistics: number of volumes in library, number 
added during year, value, etc. 

4. Visitors' Record : number of visits of county superintendent, 
school officers, patrons, etc. 

5. Condition of School Property: repairs made during year, 
others needed, condition of blackboards, outhouses, etc. 

6. Classification and Scholarship of Pupils: names of all 
pupils enrolled, grade, subjects studied, and scholarship stand- 
ings, of each. 

7. Special Events and Activities: social gatherings, play 
festivals, boys' and girls' clubs, and other matters of interest. 

8. The Daily Program. 

Such a report, it will be observed, gives a splendid 
description of the school. There are, however, two 
points to which attention should be called in this 
connection. First. The term report is usually made 
to the county superintendent or some other school 
official. It should be made, also, or at least a sum- 
mary of it, to the public through the local newspaper 
or at a gathering of school patrons. Second. Patrons, 
as a rule, are deeply interested in the financial affairs 
of the school. They are entitled to know such 
facts as: 



328 Rural School Management 

1. The assessed valuation of the district. 

2. The tax rate levied for school purposes. 

3. The sources of school funds and the amount received from 
each source. 

4. The purposes for which school funds are used and the 
amount expended for each. 

5. The cost per pupil per day of actual attendance in the school. 

As the general manager of the school, the teacher 
ought to have this information in his possession. If 
no other provision is made for making these matters 
public, he might publish them as a sort of supplemen- 
tary report or as a news item. The necessary facts 
can easily be obtained from the district clerk. The 
cost per pupil per day can be found by dividing the 
amount paid for teacher's salary, janitor's wages, and 
fuel and necessary supplies, by the total number of 
days attended by all pupils for the term. 

Reports to Parents. Practically all schools have 
some method of reporting to parents the character 
of the work their children do in the school. Practice 
differs with reference to the frequency of these reports. 
In some schools they are made monthly, in others 
every six weeks, and in still others quarterly. 

Form of Report Card. For making these reports to 
parents some kind of pupils' report card is generally 
used. Quite frequently county superintendents devise 
a special form for use in the schools of their respective 
counties. These cards are either furnished to the 
schools along with other blanks, or teachers have them 
printed at a local printing office. Another very com- 
mon practice is for teachers to procure ready-printed 
cards from school supply houses. 

Methods of Grading. There are two principal 
methods of recording and reporting pupils' grades; 



Records and Reports 329 

namely, the percentage method, and the letter 
method. 

Under the percentage method pupils are graded in 
per cents, 100 % representing a perfect grade. Practice 
differs with reference to the scale used. Some teachers 
use a scale of 1 %, or even less, while others use a scale 
of 5 % . In other words, some teachers grade so minutely 
that differences of only 1% are recorded. Such grades 
as 74%, 75%, 76%, 89%, 90% illustrate this type of 
grading. Other teachers use only those numbers which 
are multiples of 5, such as 75%, 80%, 85%, etc. The 
latter practice is regarded very generally as preferable, 
on the ground that no teacher can grade so accurately 
as to recognize a difference of 1 %. Grading, at best, 
is merely estimating, and about all any teacher can do 
is to recognize fairly large differences in the character 
of the work. The use of the 5 % scale enables teachers 
to group pupils into several classes, such as the 75 % 
class, the 80% class, and so on. Grading, then, con- 
sists in deciding to which group or class a pupil belongs. 

The letter method consists in using certain letters 
to represent grades. In some schools the letters A, 
B, C, D, E, and F are used, A representing the highest 
grade, B the next highest, etc. This plan seems to 
have no advantage over the 5% scale method. The 
two methods are alike in that they group pupils into 
certain classes, and do not take account of minute 
differences. A more common type of the letter method 
is the use of the letters E, G, M, P, and F, the initial 
letters of the words Excellent, Good, Medium, Poor, and 
Failure. The principal advantage claimed for this 
method over any of the others is that it tends to place 
more emphasis upon the character of the work and 
less upon the idea of the grade than do any of the 



330 Rural School Management 

other sjrtnbols used. The letter E, for instance, since 
it stands for Excellent, is more descriptive of the work 
than either the letter A or the symbol 95%. It is an 
abbreviation, so it is claimed, of the expression '' Your 
work is excellent in this subject." This method is 
now quite widely used and seems to be entirely satis- 
factory. 

Personal Communications. Certain difficulties are 
likely to arise in connection with the report card 
system, no matter what form of card or method of 
grading is used. It quite frequently happens that the 
cards are not taken to the parents. Pupils sometimes 
insert their parents' names and return the card to the 
teacher. Hence, the information does not reach the 
parent. Quite often, too, parents become indifferent 
to the grade cards and do not examine them carefully. 

No teacher should depend wholly on the report 
card to correct any deficiencies in a pupil's work or to 
secure the cooperation of his parents. One of the 
most effective means of accomplishing these ends is 
to mail a personal note to the parent calling his atten- 
tion to the matters that need correcting. A letter 
from the teacher is a living, personal message to the 
parent and will receive attention and arouse interest 
where a formal, impersonal report card might fail. 
Some teachers send a note occasionally to every parent, 
even though there are no deficiencies in the pupil's 
work. A friendly little note informing the parent of 
the commendable work and conduct of his child, call- 
ing attention, when necessary, to the things that need 
improvement, and soliciting the parent's cooperation 
is the best form of report a teacher can make to a 
parent. The regular report cards should be sent at 
the usual times, but they should be supplemented oc- 



Records and Reports 331 

casionally, particularly whenever there is need for 
special attention to the pupil's work, by a personal 
communication from the teacher. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Cubberley: Public School Administration, Chapter XXVI. 
United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1912, No. 3. 
Report of the Committee on Uniform Records and Reports. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. What means are used in your school for making the school 
records and reports public? 

2. What uses are made of the school census in your school? 

3. State three uses that may be made of the cumulative record 
card of pupils. 

4. Write out the following facts about your school library : 
(a) Number of volumes in the library. 

(6) Number of volumes on history and biography. 

(c) Number of volumes used as references in nature study, 
geography, agriculture, domestic science. 

(d) Number of volumes on general literature. 

5. Examine the monthly and term report blanks used in 
your school. What items of information about the school, in 
addition to those called for in the reports, would be of interest 
to your patrons? 

6. Compute the cost per pupil for each day's actual attendance 
in your school, using the data for the preceding school year. 

7. Make a list of the facts stated in the section of this chapter 
dealing with the making of reports which you regard as most 
important. 



CHAPTER XV 
THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTER 

I. FUNCTIONS OF A SOCIAL CENTER 

We hear and read much nowadays about the social 
center movement in connection with schools. A social 
center is a place where public meetings are held for 
any purpose that is of benefit to the people of the 
community. The fundamental aim of the movement 
is to make the conditions of life more profitable and 
more enjoyable for the people at large — for the old 
and the young alike. It seeks to supply the things 
the community stands in greatest need of to make the 
people comfortable and contented. In rural communi- 
ties these needs are (1) vocational education or in- 
sight, (2) recreation and social intercourse, and 
(3) wholesome entertainment. 

Vocational Education. There are, perhaps, very 
few rural communities in which the people are not 
in need of a better understanding of the things they 
try to do. In agricultural sections the farmers, as a 
rule, need to know more about their soil, their crops, 
methods of marketing their products, the keeping of 
farm accounts, and so forth. Many of our agricultural 
colleges have a staff of extension lecturers who are 
available for giving these farmers the information 
they need. The social center is one means of bring- 
ing these experts to the community for an occasional 
lecture. In addition to this, it promotes the forma- 

332 



The School as a Social Center 333 

tion of farmers' clubs, granges, equity societies, and 
other organizations designed to bring the farmers into 
closer touch with one another and to cultivate the 
spirit of mutual helpfulness and cooperation. It has 
been clearly demonstrated that men engaged in the 
same pursuits may be of invaluable assistance to one 
another through frequent meetings for the exchange 
of views, experiences, and business methods. 

But the men are not the only people who should be 
benefited through this phase of social center work. 
The women, the housewives of the community, are 
usually in need of help in the solution of problems 
pertaining to their affairs. The problems of the home- 
maker are no less important than are those of the 
breadwinner. To help the housewife in her effort to 
make a comfortable and attractive home for her 
family with as little outlay of energy and money as 
possible, is an important function of the social center. 
This help can be given through means similar to those 
employed for helping the men. Almost every com- 
munity can arrange for occasional lectures and demon- 
strations by experts in household affairs, and for meet- 
ings of the women to discuss matters of common 
interest to homemakers. 

To bring to both men and women as much help as 
possible in the practical affairs of everyday life in 
the community, is one of the chief purposes of the 
social center movement. 

Recreation. A striking characteristic of country life 
in many communities is the lack of opportunities for, 
and of inclination to seek, sufficient recreation. Coun- 
try people, as a rule, are over-serious. Life is too often 
a continuous grind, a monotonous drudgery. Holi- 
days are seldom observed, and the people rarely meet 



334 Rural School Management 

except for business or religious purposes. The in- 
evitable results of such conditions are selfishness, 
narrow-mindedness, and prejudice. 

But the social center movement is changing these 
conditions. One of the main purposes of the move- 
ment is to provide opportunities for, and to encourage, 
social intercourse and recreation among the people of 
the neighborhood. At the social center people meet 
on some occasions for the sole purpose of having a 
good time together. The results of such meetings 
are that the people forget for the time their own 
troubles, get better acquainted with their neighbors, 
acquire a deeper interest in community affairs, and 
become more contented with their lot in life. The 
play festival, the community picnic, the ice cream 
social, the old folks' spelling match, and various other 
school events are worth much to the community as 
means of furnishing needed recreation. They serve 
to break the monotony of the daily routine on the 
farm or in the home, afford a wholesome diversion 
for both young and old, and cultivate the spirit of 
sociability and friendship among people in general. 

Entertainment. A community need, closely related 
to the one just described, is the need for wholesome 
and cultural entertainment. There are forms of enter- 
tainment which the best people everywhere enjoy an.d 
which they are entitled to have. Most people enjoy 
good music, good literary programs and dramatic per- 
formances, good lectures, and wholesome stereopticon 
and moving picture entertainments. Such entertain- 
ments serve the purposes of recreation in a sense, but 
they are more than mere recreation. They are up- 
lifting, refining, and inspiring in their effects. They 
serve to create, and to satisfy, a desire for the things 



The School as a Social Center 335 

that ennoble character and make life richer in genuine 
enjoyment. 

To create a taste and supply the need for entertain- 
ment of this type is a third function of the social center. 

The School Should Be the Social Center. It is be- 
lieved very generally at present that such meetings and 
entertainments as we have mentioned should be held 
at the schoolhouse and that the school should take a 
leading part in providing occasions for the same. 

There are three reasons why the school should con- 
stitute the social center for the community. First. 
The schoolhouse and grounds belong to all the people. 
The people not only have the right but it is their duty 
to get as much benefit from their investment as is 
possible. Since the school is in session only a few 
hours each day for not more than half the days in the 
year, the school plant might well be used for other 
purposes besides the teaching of children. It seems 
an unnecessary waste to let a schoolhouse and grounds 
remain unused for so large a portion of the time when 
there are various ways in which they may be used 
with profit to the community. Second. The school- 
house is, in most instances, a good place to hold public 
meetings. It is usually centrally located with refer- 
ence to the population. In general, it has room and 
seating capacity to accommodate sufficiently the 
crowds that attend the meetings. And frequently, 
especially in the case of consolidated schools, the 
roads are kept in good condition. Third. According 
to our present notion of the functions of a school, it is 
the school's duty to help the whole community in just 
as many ways as possible. The school can and ought 
to be an important factor in providing for the educa- 
tional, recreational, and cultural needs of the people 



336 Rural School Management 

at large. To bring about this general improvement 
of the community is the aim of the social center move- 
ment. Since this is a part of the school's mission, the 
schoolhouse might well be the headquarters for, and 
the school authorities the active promoters of, the 
social center work. 

Summary. The chief aim of the social center is to supply the 
things most needed to make life in the community both profitable 
and enjoyable. Its specific functions are (1) to provide means 
of practical help for both men and women ; (2) to afford opportuni- 
ties for recreation and social intercourse; and (3) to cultivate a 
taste for and to provide wholesome entertainment. There are 
three reasons why the school should be the social center : (1) The 
schoolhouse and grounds belong to the people and are available 
for other uses besides the teaching of children; (2) they are 
usually well suited for community meetings; and (3) it is the 
school's duty to contribute in every way possible to the improve- 
ment of the community. 

n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

Notwithstanding the rapid progress which the social 
center movement has made, there are a great many 
communities that are deprived of the benefits of such 
work. The main difficulties encountered are (1) the 
lack of capable leadership, and (2) adverse public 
sentiment. 

Lack of Leadership. Attention has been called to 
the lack of leadership as one of the causes of the slow 
progress made in rural schools. In most rural com- 
munities there are people who are capable of taking a 
leading part in public affairs, but they are not accus- 
tomed to do so. Owing to the isolation of country 
homes and the infrequency of public gatherings, people 
do not learn of new movements until they are informed 
of them by some one from outside the district. This 



The School as a Social Center 337 

fact applies to the social center movement. People 
cannot be expected to start such work until they learn 
of its benefits from some one who is familiar with 
these benefits. 

Logically, the person best suited to take the lead in 
getting social center activities started is the teacher. 
But frequently the rural teacher is young, inexpe- 
rienced, and timid. Often, too, he lives outside of the 
district and returns to his home every evening or at 
the end of every week. Such conditions have tended, 
in many instances, to prevent the starting of social 
center activities at the school. 

But the task is not so difficult as many teachers 
think. We shall learn in the next section that there 
are many things the teacher and his pupils can do 
to bring the people together at the schoolhouse. Special 
training or previous experience is not absolutely es- 
sential. All that is necessary is enthusiasm and a 
willingness to put forth a little effort; and the extra 
work required is, in most cases, refreshing and en- 
joyable. It brings the teacher into closer touch with 
his patrons and makes for the greater success of the 
school. The teacher, therefore, stands a chance to 
gain much in the way of reputation and personal en- 
joyment by providing for an occasional meeting of his 
patrons. It is highly probable that in a short time 
some of the patrons will be willing to cooperate with 
the school and will take over, in a large measure, the 
work and responsibility involved in conducting such 
affairs. 

Adverse Public Sentiment. Some teachers have 
found that public sentiment in their communities is 
opposed to using the schoolhouse for any purpose 
except the teaching of children. There are people 



338 Rural School Management 

who believe sincerely that nothing should be permitted 
to take place in the school that will draw the minds 
of the children away from their studies. They hold 
that the proper place for young people to spend their 
evenings is at home, though they do not always put 
this theory into practice. They look upon public 
meetings at the schoolhouse as a violation of the 
sacred purpose of the school; namely, that of teach- 
ing children to read, write, cipher, and spell. 

These are a few of the traditions that exist in some 
rural communities. They are due, for the most part, 
to the fact that people have not learned of the benefits 
that may come from the wider use of their school. 
One of the best methods of handling a situation of 
this sort is to plan a few events for the specific purpose 
of giving the people a thoroughly enjoyable time. The 
old saying " the proof of the pudding lies in the eating 
thereof " expresses a truth that can be used to ad- 
vantage here. The very best argument that can be 
made for the social center is to give the people a taste 
of its benefits. A few delightful meetings will do 
more to overcome opposition than any argument the 
teacher can produce. People can always judge more 
fairly of a thing after they have had some experience 
with it. The first step, therefore, is to have a meeting 
or two planned primarily to be thoroughly enjoyable 
to the patrons. If there is opposition to a meeting 
at the schoolhouse in the evening, it may be held on a 
Friday afternoon. A parents' day planned with the 
above end in view will make a good beginning. A 
few such meetings will pave the way for meetings of 
other sorts and for other purposes. From some such 
simple beginning the people may be led gradually to 
take up the various forms of social center work. 



The School as a Social Center 339 

Other Difficulties. (1) Expense. If a method 
similar to the one described in the last paragraph is 
used in getting the social center work started, there 
need be no expense until the work is well under way. 
As interest grows and the people begin to realize the 
value of such activities, they will devise some means 
of raising funds if any are needed. The expense need 
not be great at any time, and much can be done with- 
out any outlay at all. (2) Small districts. In states 
where school districts are small and numerous, it is 
not necessary that every school shall be a social center. 
It is better to combine several neighboring districts 
into a single '' social center district." County super- 
intendents sometimes divide their counties into such 
districts, and all of the teachers and schools in each 
district unite to carry on the community activities. 
In some cases these activities are held at the most 
centrally located school, while in other cases the 
meetings are rotated among the schools in the district. 

Summary. The greatest hindrances to the spread of social 
center work in rural communities are (1) lack of leaders and 
(2) the opposition of some patrons. A teacher who is willing to 
do a little extra work can easily overcome both of these difficulties. 
No expense need be involved until the work has aroused sufficient 
interest to make the raising of funds an easy matter. Frequently 
several small districts can unite to advantage to form a single 
social center district. 

III. HOW TO MAKE THE SCHOOL A SOCIAL CENTER 

The social activities that may be carried on in 
connection with the school are of two kinds: (1) oc- 
casional single meetings held under the auspices of 
the school, such as spelling bees, play festivals, box 
suppers, school plays, etc. ; and (2) regular meetings 



340 Rural School Management 

held under the auspices of some organization such 
as a literary society, a parent-teachers' association, 
or a farmers' club. For the sake of convenience these 
will be designated as the unorganized and the or- 
ganized types of social activities. 



1. Unorganized Social Activities 

Public Meetings Previously Mentioned. There are 
many ways in which the teacher and his pupils can 
provide wholesome recreation and entertainment for 
the people of the community. Several kinds of 
public meetings have been described in connection 
with other phases of the school's work. Clean-up 
Day, Parents' Day, box suppers, ice-cream socials, 
school exhibits and fairs, play festivals, old folks' 
spelling bees — these and other forms of public gather- 
ings have been discussed, but they are mentioned 
here to emphasize their social value. Whatever other 
purpose one of these events may serve, whether it is 
to arouse interest, raise money, promote health, or 
beautify the school, it is eminently worth while as a 
means of enriching the social life of the community. 

Special Day Programs. To the foregoing list many 
other interesting and profitable forms of entertainment 
may be added. Special programs in observance of 
certain days or events constitute an excellent type 
of community entertainment. A Hallowe'en party, 
such as has been described, may be made a delightful 
occasion for adults as well as for young people. A 
Christmas tree and entertainment has been made, in 
many instances, a thoroughly enjoyable event for the 
entire community. Thanksgiving Day, Washington's 
Birthday, Peace Day, and Columbus Day are all ap- 



The School as a Social Center 341 

propriate occasions for school entertainments to which 
the public may be invited. 

Programs at such times as these are not only enter- 
taining, they are educative both to the pupils and to 
their parents. Furthermore, opportunity can be given 
for recreation and social intercourse. The serving of 
refreshments adds greatly to the spirit of sociability 
and good-fellowship. Few people can attend a meet- 
ing of this sort without being helped in various ways. 

Dramatic Performances. Dramatic performances or 
school plays are always a popular form of entertain- 
ment. In one instance the dramatization of Hiawatha 
created such an interest in the community that the 
teacher was petitioned by the patrons to have the 
performance repeated a few days later. One or two 
school plays could be given every year without any 
serious injury to the regular class work of pupils. 
There are a great many excellent plays that are within 
the ability of country children to produce with good 
effect. 

Musical Programs. There are several ways in 
which the school can give good musical entertainments. 
If the school owns a phonograph, this may be brought 
into service. The school chorus or glee club may 
contribute a few numbers or give an entire program. 
Where none of these means is available, a community 
" sing " may be held. This form is especially valuable 
because all of the people may take part in the program. 
There are in many communities girls who play the 
piano or organ and young men who play the violin. 
Selections on these instruments will add variety and 
interest to the program. 

Stereopticon and Motion Picture Entertainments. A 
considerable number of schools, especially consolidated 



342 Rural School Management 

schools, now own a stereopticon or a motion picture 
apparatus. These may be used to excellent advantage 
in the social center work of the school. The motion 
picture show is probably the greatest single source 
of recreation and diversion in towns and cities. It 
seems only fair that country people should have some 
opportunities of this sort. 

In giving a stereopticon or motion picture enter- 
tainment three things should be kept in mind. First. 
Some of the entertainments or a part of every enter- 
tainment should aim primarily at giving instruction. 
The pictures should deal with things the people are 
interested in and ought to know about. Second. 
Some of the pictures should be given for amusement. 
There is a little couplet which says : 

"A little nonsense now and then 
Is relished by the best of men." 

Undoubtedly there is a legitimate place in every com- 
munity for some innocent, wholesome amusement. 
But the pictures used for this purpose should never 
be degrading or demoralizing in their influence. Third. 
Picture entertainments should be given only occa- 
sionally. One of the objections to the picture shows 
in towns is that they often interfere with the school 
work of children. This should be carefully guarded 
against in the social center work of the school. 

Receptions. In some communities it is the custom 
for the school to hold a reception in honor of a new 
teacher or newly elected members of the school board. 
It is not good taste, of course, for a teacher to plan a 
reception for himself, but he can take an active part 
in arranging an event of this sort in honor of the 
board members. A program for such a reception 



The School as a Social Center 343 

might consist of (1) a few musical selections inter- 
spersed throughout the program; (2) short talks by 
one or two prominent citizens ; (3) short responses by 
the newly elected members of the board ; (4) the serv- 
ing of refreshments ; and (5) an informal social hour. 
An event of this kind is an excellent form of social 
center work. 

Hints on Holding Community Meetings. (1) Ad- 
vertise the meeting thoroughly. Use the pupils, the 
local newspaper, and the telephone for this purpose. 
See that everybody has a cordial invitation to be 
present. (2) Arrange beforehand with some prominent 
citizen to preside at the meeting and to have charge 
of the program. (3) Start the program on time. 
People will become impatient and restless if they are 
required to wait long for the program to begin. (4) Be 
sure to make the first meeting a decided success. Select 
one of the most popular forms of entertainment for 
this meeting and see that everything is in perfect 
readiness. Upon the outcome of the first meeting 
depends, in a large measure, the success of later meet- 
ings. (5) Vary the type of meeting from time to time. 
Do not use one type of entertainment until it becomes 
monotonous. Plan something new and interesting. 
(6) After the first meeting or two call on patrons for 
any assistance they can render. Work gradually 
toward enlisting the entire community in a coopera- 
tive effort for the improvement of the conditions of 
life for all the people. 

Summary. Social center activities are of two main types, the 
unorganized and the organized. The unorganized type includes 
all single meetings held under the auspices of the school, to which 
the public is invited. Public gatherings held for the purpose of 
raising money for school purposes, or for cleaning up and beautify- 



344 Rural School Management 

ing the premises, or for arousing interest on the part of patrons ; 
all special day programs, dramatic performances, musical enter- 
tainments and picture entertainments and receptions are of this 
type. 



2. Organized Social Center Work 

Such public meetings as have been discussed should 
pave the way for and gradually lead to the formation 
of some sort of organization for carrying on the social 
center work. The kinds of organizations formed for 
this purpose vary with different communities. Among 
those that are most common are literary societies, 
young people's organizations, parent-teacher associa- 
tions, and farmers' clubs. 

Literary Societies. The literary society is one of 
the most common forms of organization for holding 
regular community meetings. If rightly managed, it 
is an excellent means of carrying on community center 
work. 

Organizing the Society. When the school takes the 
initiative in getting the society started, the usual 
method is for the teacher to confer with the members 
of the school board and perhaps a few other leading 
citizens to arouse their interest in the movement. A 
public entertainment is then given by the school, and 
at the most interesting point in the program some 
one previously spoken to is asked for a short talk in 
which he proposes the formation of a literary society. 
A few others are asked to express their opinions on the 
subject. If the sentiment is favorable to the move- 
ment, a committee on constitution and by-laws is 
appointed and a date is set for the first meeting. It 
is a good plan to have a program prepared for this 
meeting. The adoption of the constitution and by- 



The School as a Social Center 345 

laws and the election of the permanent officers will 
require only a few minutes. Hence there will be 
plenty of time for a short program. The exercises 
prepared for this meeting should be just as enjoyable 
as it is possible to make them in order to arouse the 
interest of the people from the very beginning. 

Constitution and By-Laws. The organization of the 
society should be kept just as simple as possible. The 
constitution and by-laws should be brief and so easily 
understood that there will be no time lost in wrangling 
over their meaning. The following outlines indicate 
about what they should contain : 

Constitution 

Article I — The name of the society 

Article II — Its objects or purposes 

Article III — Officers — method of electing and terms 

Article IV — Who may be members 

Article V — Method of amending the constitution 

By-Laws 

Article I — Duties of officers and regular committees 

Article II — Meetings — time and place of regular meetings ; 

how special meetings may be called 
Article III — Dues, if any, and when they are to be paid ; how 

money may be paid out 
Article IV — Method of amending the by-laws 

Conducting the Meetings. If the literary society is 
to serve the purposes of a community center, the 
programs must be varied to suit the interests and needs 
of the people at large. No one line of work should be 
followed to the exclusion of all other lines. Some of 
the exercises should be educational. To this end there 
should be debates on important questions and talks 
by patrons or outside speakers on topics of timely 



346 Rural School Management 

interest to the community. Diversion and recreation 
should be provided for through such exercises as hu- 
morous recitations, dialogues, mock trials, etc. In ad- 
dition, there should be musical selections, choice literary 
reading, and lectures to furnish wholesome entertain- 
ment. In some instances it is possible to embody most, 
if not all, of these features in the same program. Occa- 
sionally, however, an entire meeting should be given 
to one kind of entertainment. If the society is con- 
ducted with these ends in view, it will be attended by 
adults as well as by young people and the whole com- 
munity will be greatly benefited by it. 

Young People's Organizations. A considerable num- 
ber of our state and national organizations for young 
people are finding their way into rural communities. 
Among these may be mentioned the Boy Scouts, the 
Camp Fire Girls, the Young Men's Christian Associa- 
tion, the Young Women's Christian Association, and 
the Boys' and Girls' Agricultural Club. Most of these 
organizations require a leader who has had some special 
training for the kind of work involved. But where 
any one of these societies is being maintained it can be 
used to excellent advantage in helping to provide 
social recreation and entertainment for the community. 
A fuller discussion of the boys' and girls' agricultural 
club work is reserved for a later chapter. 

In many districts it is possible to form local organiza- 
tions including the pupils in the upper grades and the 
young people of the neighborhood who are not attend- 
ing the school. If the teacher can lead in music, he should 
form a chorus society, a glee club, or an orchestra. 
Such an organization will furnish excellent recreation 
and training for its members and may be used to give 
an occasional public entertainment or to enrich the pro- 



The School as a Social Center 347 

grams given by other organizations. Where strictly 
musical societies are not possible, dramatic clubs, liter- 
ary clubs, or general culture organizations may be 
formed and used for social center purposes. Any 
organization that will unite the young people for 
their own improvement and enjoyment and that may 
be used on occasions for community uplift will con- 
stitute an excellent agency for the social center work 
of the school. 

Parent-Teacher Associations. The parent-teacher 
association has been described in connection with the 
problem of arousing interest among the patrons of 
the school. We have learned that one of the chief 
functions of such an organization is to help make 
the conditions of life more profitable and more en- 
joyable for all of the people of the community. 
Where a parent-teacher association exists, social center 
work usually constitutes one of its main activities. 
It makes provision for educative lectures, recreation, 
and entertainment of various sorts. This is done in 
some cases through the regular program committee. 
In other cases there is a standing social committee 
which has charge of this phase of the association's 
work. 

Farmers' Clubs. Some form of farmers' organiza- 
tion makes an excellent means of providing for the 
social needs of rural communities. There are several 
types of such organizations, among which are Granges, 
Farmers' Unions, Equity Societies, and Farmers' Clubs. 
These organizations are similar in form, purposes, and 
methods of carrying on their work. The Farmers' 
Club has been selected for description chiefly because 
it is one of the latest, and is rapidly becoming one of 
the most popular, movements for the improvement 



S48 Rural School Management 

of country life conditions. All that is said, however, 
may be applied to any of the other types of farmers' 
organizations. 

Nature of the Club. The farmers' club is an or- 
ganization to which everybody in the community, 
from the oldest to the youngest, may belong. In 
fact, its membership is often numbered by families 
rather than by individuals. The club meets once or 
twice a month or every week, as its members may 
decide. The frequency of the meetings is determined 
by the keenness of interest shown. Where the clubs 
are small, the meetings are sometimes held at the 
homes of the members. Large clubs, however, find 
it more convenient to meet at the schoolhouse. 

The officers of the club are usually a president, a 
vice president, a secretary, a treasurer, and an executive 
committee of three members appointed by the presi- 
dent. The constitution is a brief statement of (1) the 
name of the club, (2) its purposes, (3) officers, (4) who 
may be members and how they are elected, and (5) how 
the constitution may be amended. The by-laws state 

(1) the main duties and the method of selecting officers, 

(2) the time and place of regular meetings and how 
special meetings may be called, (3) how members may 
be expelled, (4) dues and assessments, if any are 
needed, and (5) how the by-laws may be amended. 

Activities of the Club. The activities of the club 
are of three kinds: (1) social, (2) educational, and 

(3) business. 

A great deal of emphasis is placed on the social 
aspect of the club's work. One of its main purposes 
is to get the people together. To do this it is neces- 
sary that they have an enjoyable time. Accord- 
ingly, entertainments are held in which local people 



The School as a Social Center 349 

take a leading part. Duets, quartettes, and chorus 
singing; piano, organ, or violin solos; readings and 
dialogues ; the serving of refreshments and an informal 
social hour — these and such other forms of entertain- 
ment as are available in the community are used in 
making up the programs. 

The above-mentioned entertainment features are 
varied from time to time and intermingled with the 
educational aspects of the club's work. The essential 
educational feature is the exchange of experience and 
opinions. To this end there are frequent general dis- 
cussions, short talks, and debates by local people on 
important farm and household questions. Occasion- 
ally, too, an outside speaker is brought in to lecture on 
some topic that is of special interest to the community. 
This lecture is followed by a general discussion of the 
topic presented. Matters of interest to women receive 
equal attention with those of interest to men. Through 
this interchange of ideas " the grain farmer learns from 
the cattleman ; the dairyman learns from the gardener ; 
the woman with home conveniences tells her less for- 
tunate sisters. All the information of the community 
is brought to a focus in the farmers' club." To this is 
added, on occasion, the expert knowledge of the 
specialist — the county farm agent or the extension 
lecturer from the agricultural college. 

The business advantages of the club lie chiefly in 
the opportunities it affords for cooperation in selling 
farm products, in buying things needed in large quan- 
tities, and in conducting enterprises that are of benefit 
to the community. In some instances the club mem- 
bers cooperate in the shipping of live stock, potatoes, 
grain, fruit, etc. In other instances they unite in 
buying coal, seed grain, fine stock, or a certain machine 



350 Rural School Management 

or implement that will serve the needs of several 
farmers. In some communities creameries, telephones, 
and elevators are owned and operated by farmers' 
clubs. Sometimes several clubs unite to employ a 
farm agent or adviser for the communities represented 
by the clubs. 

What the Teacher Can Do. If there is a farmers' 
club, a grange, or a farmers' union in the community, 
the teacher can bring the school and the organization 
into helpful relations with each other. A good method 
of accomplishing this end is for the school to give a 
special entertainment or reception for the club. Ex- 
tend to every member a pressing invitation to be 
present. This will do much to arouse the interest 
and cooperation of the club in the work of the school. 
The teacher can then offer the services of the school 
in any way that it can help in the social and educational 
work of the club. When the school shows its willing- 
ness to assist the organization in every way possible, it 
will win the confidence of the club members and may 
easily become the center of the club's activities. Both 
the school and the club will profit by means of this 
relationship. 

Where there is no farmers' organization in the com- 
munity, the teacher may take the initiative in getting 
one formed. One teacher adopted the following plan 
of procedure. He took up the matter of forming a 
club with three or four of the leading farmers in the 
district and got them deeply interested in the move- 
ment. A date was set for a public meeting at the 
schoolhouse. At this meeting a short program of 
especially interesting exercises was given by the school. 
At the proper place in the program, one of the farmers, 
who had been previously spoken to, gave a short talk 



The School as a Social Center 351 

explaining the advantages of a farmers' club to the 
community. Another farmer told of what the clubs 
were doing in other communities. After a brief general 
discussion of the question, the people voted almost 
unanimously to form the club. A committee on con- 
stitution and by-laws and a program committee were 
then appointed and a date selected for the next meet- 
ing. At the next meeting the organization was per- 
fected by adopting the constitution and by-laws and 
electing the officers required. A few short talks and a 
very ' pleasant social hour closed the meeting and 
marked the beginning of a very successful farmers' club. 

Summary. In order to make the social center activities most 
effective, a permanent organization should be formed for carry- 
ing on the work. Any one of the following organizations, if 
rightly conducted, will serve the purpose well : a literary society, 
a parent-teachers' association, or a farmers' club. A young 
people's society, such as a glee club, a chorus, an orchestra, a 
literary or dramatic club, may be formed for the special benefit 
of its members and to assist in supplying the social needs of the 
whole community. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Betts and Hall : Better Rural Schools, Chapter XVI. 

Carney : Country Life and the Country School, Chapter IV ; also 

pp. 229-239. 
CuBBERLEY : Rural Life and Education, pp. 117-129 ; 139-146. 
Button : School Management, Chapter XVII. 
Kennedy : Rural Life and the Rural School, Chapter X. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. What forms of social center work, if any, are being held in 
connection with your school ? Describe the method of procedure 
in detail. 

2. What opportunities for recreation and entertainment, other 
than those afforded by the school, do the people of your com- 
munity have? 



352 Rural School Management 

3. State the principal hindrances to social center activities in 
your district. Explain how these are or might be overcome. 

4. Name three kinds of school entertainments, in addition to 
those mentioned in the text, that could be given by the teacher 
and pupils. 

5. Using the outline given in the text, write out a constitution 
and a set of by-laws for a literary society in your school. 

6. Prepare an argument such as you would make to the lead- 
ing patrons of a rural district to secure their cooperation in or- 
ganizing a farmers' club. 

7. Summarize, in outline form, the main points in the chapter. 



CHAPTER XVI 

ORGANIZATION FOR ADMINISTRATIVE 
PURPOSES 

I. FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 

Functions. Practically all educators now agree that 
the administration of country schools constitutes one 
of the biggest problems of rural education. By the 
term administration we mean the carrying on of the 
business affairs that are necessary to maintain the 
school. In every school there are certain business 
affairs that must be transacted. Some of these per- 
tain to the finances of the school, such as levying taxes, 
issuing bonds, ordering and paying school warrants, 
etc. Others pertain to the ownership, care, and dis- 
posal of school property. Every school must have 
the right to own a schoolhouse and grounds, to buy 
equipment, to sell any of its property that is no longer 
needed, and to have such property taken care of. 
Again, there are affairs that pertain to the making of 
contracts. Teachers and janitors must be employed, 
sometimes workmen must be engaged to repair the 
schoolhouse or construct a new one, contracts for fuel 
must be made, and so on. 

These are a few of the business affairs that must be 
transacted from time to time in every school. But 
to carry on such transactions, some form of organiza- 
tion is necessary. There must be a school district of 
some sort, a certain territory or geographical unit 
within which such business affairs may be carried on 

353 



354 Rural School Management 

and to which they apply. There must be a board of 
directors or trustees empowered to transact business 
for the school. Provision must be made, also, for 
annual meetings and other meetings or elections at 
which the voters may express their views or vote on 
matters that pertain to the school. 

To the end, then, that the business affairs of the 
school may be carried on to best advantage, some 
form of organization is necessary. There must be a 
unit of organization; that is, a territorial district, a 
board of directors to act in certain matters for the 
people of the district, and also some provision for 
annual meetings and special meetings of the people 
to transact such business as is not delegated to the 
district officials. Such an organization is a device, a 
means for administering the affairs of the school. 

Types of School Organization. At present there 
are three main types of school organization: (1) the 
district system, (2) the township system, and (3) the 
county unit system. 

The District System. The district system is the 
most common type of school organization. A district, 
as the term is used in this connection, is a small area, 
usually not more than two or three miles square, in 
which a single school is maintained. Each district 
has its own board of directors consisting, in most 
cases, of three members, one elected each year for 
a term of three years. This board has general control 
of the school. It has the oversight of the property, 
selects the teacher, furnishes supplies, and orders 
repairs and other improvements when needed. An 
annual meeting of the voters is held in each district 
for the election of directors and the transaction of such 
other business as may be necessary. 



Organization for Administrative Purposes 355 

In almost all of its affairs each district is independent 
of all other districts. It has its own school board; 
fixes, within the constitutional limit, its own tax 
rate ; determines the length of its school term ; selects 
its own teacher; and decides what improvements, if 
any, shall be made and what equipment provided. It 
is clear, therefore, that there may be very great differ- 
ences among the schools in different districts. 

The Township System. The principal feature of 
this system of organization is that all of the rural 
schools in a township are under the management 
of a single school board. This township board takes 
the place of the local board which each school has 
under the district system. It may establish new 
schools as they are needed. It fixes the tax rate and 
the length of the school term, selects the teachers, 
furnishes equipment, and orders all needed repairs 
made, for all of the schools in the township. 

In some of the states which have this type of organiza- 
tion, all of the schools in the township, including those 
in cities and towns, are under the management of the 
township board. In other states, town and city schools 
are organized into separate districts and are under the 
management of different boards. Occasionally, too, 
under this system each school or sub-district has a local 
board or director whose duty it is to look after the needs 
of the school and report them to the township board. 

The County System. Under this type of organiza- 
tion the county is the unit for administering school 
affairs. This means that all of the districts in the 
county, except independent city districts, are com- 
bined into one district. All school affairs are adminis- 
tered by a county board of education elected by the 
voters at large, and by local district boards. A more 



356 Rural School Management 

complete description of this type of school organiza- 
tion is reserved for Section III of this chapter. 

Summary. There are a great many business affairs to be 
transacted in maintaining a school. These affairs should be 
transacted in such a way as to get the greatest amount of benefit 
from the school. To do this some form of organization is neces- 
sary. There are three main types of organization: (1) the dis- 
trict system, (2) the township system, and (3) the county unit 
system. 

n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

Weaknesses of the District System. The district 
system of organization is now regarded by all students 
of rural education as a serious hindrance to the effi- 
ciency of rural schools. Thousands of country boys 
and girls are being deprived of a high school, or even 
an elementary, education because they live in a district 
that is so small and so poor that proper educational 
facilities cannot be provided. 

The principal difficulties of the district system are 
given by Professor Cubberley as follows : 

"The chief objections to the district system of school organiza- 
tion are that it is no longer so well adapted to meet present con- 
ditions and needs as are other systems of larger scope ; that dis- 
trict authorities but seldom see the real needs of their schools 
or the possibilities of rural education ; that as a system of school 
administration it is expensive, short-sighted, inefficient, incon- 
sistent, and unprogressive ; that it leads to great and unnecessary 
inequalities in schools, terms, educational advantages, and to an 
unwise multiplication of schools ; that the taxing unit is too small, 
and the trustees too penurious ; that trustees, because they hold 
the purse-strings, frequently assume authority over matters which 
they are not competent to manage ; and that most of the progress 
in rural school improvement has been made without the support 
and often against the opposition of the trustees and of the people 
they represent." ^ 

^ Rural Life and Education, p. 184. 



Organization for Administrative Purposes 357 

Professor Charters ^ gives the following as the chief 
weaknesses of the district unit : (1) inequality of edu- 
cational opportunity for pupils of different districts; 
(2) unequal and inequitable tax rate and returns from 
the tax rate ; (3) inequality of cost for service rendered ; 
and (4) the number of school directors so large as to 
hinder progress. 

Let us see how each of these results arises from the 
district type of organization. 

Unequal Opportunities for Pupils. As a rule, the 
wealthier districts have the better schools. They 
have longer terms, better teachers, more sanitary 
schoolhouses, and more equipment. Pupils who live 
in a wealthy district, therefore, have better opportuni- 
ties for getting an education than those who live in a 
poor district. An instance is cited in which one school 
has an eight-months' term, a $50 teacher, a $1200 modern 
schoolhouse, and $200 worth of equipment, while an 
adjoining district has a five-months' term, a $40 teacher, 
a $400 schoolhouse, and only $100 worth of equipment. 
Clearly, the children who live in the wealthier district 
are far more fortunate than are their neighbors and 
relatives who happen to live across the district line in 
the poorer district. Under the district system a 
child's chance for an education depends, in a large 
measure, on the wealth of the district in which he 
happens to be reared. 

Unequal and Inequitable Tax Rate. Wealthy dis- 
tricts almost invariably have lower tax rates as well 
as better schools than do the poor districts. In the 
instance just cited the tax levy most generally made 
is only 40 cents on the $100 valuation, while in the 
poorer district it is more than 60 cents on $100. The 
^ The County School Unit. 



858 Rural School Management 

people who live in the wealthier district not only have 
a longer school term and a better equipped school, 
but they have these advantages at a lower tax rate 
than their neighbors across the district line are paying 
for an inferior school. Evidently, there is something 
wrong with an educational system which makes it 
possible for one to get larger returns at less cost to 
himself simply by moving across a school district 
boundary line. 

Unequal Cost for Service Rendered. A third weak- 
ness of the system, according to Professor Charters, 
is found in the high cost per pupil in proportion to 
the benefits received from the school. Investigations 
have shown that education costs more per pupil per 
day in country schools than it does in town schools 
having two and three years of high school work. It 
was found in one state, for instance, that the cost per 
pupil per day in coimtry schools was 12.2 cents ; in town 
schools having two-year high schools it was 11.5 cents ; 
and in towns having three-year high schools it was 11.8 
cents. In this instance the taxpayers in the country 
schools are paying more per pupil for the education of 
their children than is being paid by the people in 
the town schools. 

This would be perfectly legitimate if the country 
people were getting more returns from their schools 
than the town patrons receive, but as a matter of 
fact they receive smaller returns. The children in 
the town schools receive ten and eleven years of train- 
ing, while those living in the country receive only 
eight years — a gain of 25% to 37^% to the town 
pupil. Again, the towns usually have longer terms 
and better facilities than the rural schools have. It 
is perfectly clear, therefore, that the country parents 



Organization for Administrative Purposes 359 

are not getting the amount of service that they should 
get from their schools in proportion to the amount 
they are paying to support them. 

Furthermore, the small enrollment and average 
attendance in many rural schools is the cause of an 
enormous waste to the district. One teacher can 
easily instruct twenty-five or thirty pupils. But in 
a great many country schools the attendance is not 
more than half that number. One school which is 
maintained at an expense of more than $600 has an 
average daily attendance of only three pupils. In 
this instance the cost per pupil for the year is more 
than $200. No such waste as the small school dis- 
trict involves would be tolerated in any private business 
enterprise. 

The Number of School Directors Too Large. Under 
the district plan of organization from 15,000 to 45,000 
school directors are required to manage the rural 
schools of a state, and from 150 to 500 to manage the 
schools of a single county. This condition is a serious 
detriment to the schools in two ways. First. It is 
extremely difficult, if not impossible, to elect such an 
army of school officials without placing some in office 
who are not fitted for the position of school director. 
Incompetent directors constitute a serious hindrance 
to the efficiency and progress of the school. Second. 
The success of the school depends, in a large measure, 
on the active interest and cooperation of the school 
board. Board members should be familiar with the 
work and needs of their own schools. Further than 
this, they ought to know what conditions are essential 
to the highest success of the school. To educate 
along these lines such a host of officials as the district 
system requires is an enormous task. The best method 



360 Rural School Management 

is by means of personal contact, heart to heart talks 
with some one in whom they have the utmost con- 
fidence. State and county superintendents everywhere 
are doing all they can along this line. But, with the 
limited number of assistants with which most superin- 
tendents are at present supplied, the task is too great 
to permit of securing the best results. 

The Township System. The township is very 
generally regarded as a better unit than the local 
district for the organization of schools. The chief 
advantages claimed for the township system are : 
(1) The tax rate levied for school purposes is uniform 
throughout the township, and the funds raised are 
distributed among the various schools according to 
their needs. (2) Educational opportunities are equal- 
ized, as far as possible, among the districts or schools 
in the township. All of the schools in the same town- 
ship have the same length of term, equally well-qualified 
teachers, etc. (3) It is more favorable to the con- 
solidation of schools than is the district system. Since 
all of the schools are under the management of the 
same board, there are as a rule fewer of the petty 
jealousies and prejudices that often prevent the con- 
solidation of schools under the district plan. 

Notwithstanding these advantages, most of our 
leading educators hold that even the township is too 
small a unit for the satisfactory administration of 
rural schools. Educational opportunities should be 
equalized and the burdens of taxation be evenly dis- 
tributed over a larger area than a single township. 
One township may be so poor that it cannot maintain 
an efficient system of schools, even with a high tax 
rate ; while another township, because of its greater 
wealth, may have excellent schools with a much 



Organization for Administrative Purposes 361 

lower rate of taxation. Consequently, there may be, 
and often are, glaring inequalities among schools, 
even under the township system of organization. 
Furthermore, the township is, in a vast majority of 
cases, too small and too poor to provide for the effective 
supervision of its schools. 

The consensus of opinion of our leading educators 
is that the township system may, and often does, 
improve conditions in some schools, but it is not an 
effective remedy for the evils of the district system. 
Equal educational advantages for all pupils, and 
equal distribution of the burdens of taxation for 
school support, and the elimination of waste in the 
maintenance of schools, cannot be adequately attained 
until our schools are organized and administered on 
the basis of a still larger unit. 

Summary. The district system of organization is universally- 
regarded by educators as a serious hindrance to the efficiency of 
rural schools. It has a great many weaknesses, among which 
are the following: (1) It gives rise to unequal educational op- 
portunities for children ; (2) the rate of taxation and the benefits 
received from the funds raised are unequal and inequitable ; 
(3) the cost of maintenance in many schools is out of proportion 
to the service the schools render ; and (4) the immense number 
of school directors required is a hindrance to progress. The 
township system has some advantages over the district system, 
but it is not an adequate method of administering rural schools. 



m. BETTER METHODS OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 

Having pointed out the difficulties encountered when 
schools are organized under the district and the town- 
ship systems, the next question to be considered is: 
How can these difficulties be overcome ? What method 
of organization, if any, will give country children the 



362 Rural School Management 

educational opportunities to which they are entitled? 
Two methods have been found very satisfactory wher- 
ever they have been tried. These are (1) the county 
unit type of organization, and (2) the consolidation of 
school districts. 



1. The County Unit 

Essential Features. Several of the states already 
have the county unit as the basis of rural school ad- 
ministration, and in every one of them it is proving 
satisfactory. The details of the plan vary with differ- 
ent states, but there are certain features that are found 
in nearly all cases where the system exists. 

The County Board of Education. The most im- 
portant feature is that all of the schools in the 
county are under the management of a single board 
of directors usually known as the County Board 
of Education. The number of members varies in dif- 
ferent states from three to nine, or even more. In 
some instances the members are appointed, in others 
they are elected by the people at large or by dis- 
tricts. The length of term varies from one year to 
five years. 

The powers of the county board include some or all 
of the following : 

To elect a county superintendent of schools. 

To select the teachers for all of the schools. 

To erect new schoolhouses and condemn old ones. 

To provide equipment for the schools. 

To move district boundary lines and designate which school 
children shall attend. 

To levy a school tax up to a certain limit. 

To consolidate schools and make provision for the transporta- 
tion of pupils. 



Organization for Administrative Purposes 363 

Some educators believe that the county board should 
have still greater powers. To the foregoing list they 
would add the power : 

To control all the expenditures of the entire school fund. 

To have general control of all school property. 

To establish and locate high schools. 

To make provision for assistant county superintendents, super- 
visors, and all necessary clerical help. 

To pay all office and traveling expenses of the county superin- 
tendent and his assistants. 

The Local District Board. In practically all of the 
states that have the county unit system there is, in 
addition to the county board, a local school board 
for each district. The number of members of this 
board varies from one to three and the length of term 
from one to four years. In some instances members 
are appointed and in others they are elected. 

In states where the county boards have such powers 
as we have enumerated there is not much left for the 
local boards to do. There are, however, a few things 
for which such a board is needed in every district. 
Its principal duties are : 

To hear the complaints of patrons. 

To suspend or expel unruly pupils. 

To approve the reports of the teacher. 

To have immediate charge of local school property. 

To report to the county board the conditions that exist in the 
school. 

To supervise the erection of a new schoolhouse or the repair of 
the old one. 

The Supervision of Schools. In a majority of the 
states having the county unit system the county 
superintendent and his assistants are selected by the 
county board. This is regarded as one of the best 



364 Rural School Management 

features of the system. All educators recognize the 
importance of taking and keeping the office of superin- 
tendent of schools out of politics. When the superin- 
tendent is elected by popular vote, there is no certainty 
that the most competent person will be selected. In 
cities the superintendent is chosen by the school board. 
Furthermore, the board is not compelled to make its 
selection from teachers living in the city. It is at 
liberty to select the best man for the position regard- 
less of his place of residence. If this is a good plan 
for city schools, it ought to be a good plan for country 
schools as well. One of the greatest needs of rural 
schools is a more adequate system of supervising the 
teaching in the schools. It is believed that if all of 
the schools of a county are combined into a single 
district, and the power to appoint the superintendent 
and supervisors given to the county board, a much 
better system of supervision can be had than is possible 
under any other unit of organization. 

The Management of School Funds. Practices with 
reference to levying school taxes and disbursing school 
funds are not uniform in states where the county unit 
prevails. In most of the states money for the support of 
the schools comes from the state, a county tax, and a local 
district tax. A few states do not permit the levying of 
a local district tax, and a few others have no county tax. 

The following method of handling the school finances 
is believed to be a good plan : 

1. Have the state funds apportioned among the various coun- 
ties on the basis of actual attendance. 

2. Permit the county board to levy a uniform county tax up 
to a certain limit. 

3. Permit the people of the county to authorize by vote an 
additional levy when such is needed. 



Organization for Administrative Purposes 365 

4. Permit the county board to distribute the funds thus ob- 
tained among the schools of the county in proportion to the needs 
of each school. 

5. Permit local districts to levy a district tax when the people 
of the district want more funds than are obtained through the 
county board. 

Such a plan seems to have the following advantages : 

(1) It equalizes the burden of taxation throughout the 
county; (2) it permits the use of school funds where 
they are most needed, thus making for equal educa- 
tional opportunities in all of the schools; (3) it en- 
courages local interest and initiative by making possible 
the levying of a district tax for any special equipment 
or improvements the people of the district may desire. 

Summary. The essential features of a good type of county 
unit organization are : (1) a county board of education in which 
is vested fairly complete control of all the schools in the county ; 

(2) a local board in each district to report to the county board 
the conditions and needs of each school ; (3) the appointment 
by the county board of a county superintendent, assistants, and 
supervisors with ample provision for their salaries and expenses ; 
(4) the levying of a county school tax and the apportionment of 
school funds by the county board. 

Advantages of the County Unit. A committee of 
educators appointed by the Missouri State Teachers' 
Association made a careful investigation of the work- 
ings of the plan in several states. In their report 
they enumerate the following advantages of this type 
of school organization: 

To THE School Children 

1. It means better teachers. 

2. It means more and better supervision of these teachers. 

3. Teachers will be placed where they can work to best ad- 
vantage. 



366 Rural School Management 

4. It means better school buildings. 

5. It means better libraries and better school equipment. 

6. It means free high schools for all pupils who complete the 
grade work. 

7. It insures properly supervised corn clubs and canning clubs 
and social center work. 

8. It insures more practical work in agriculture and domestic 
science. 

9. It brings the inspiration of trained leaders. 

10. It gives an opportunity to attend the most convenient 
school. 

11. It guarantees to all boys and girls equal opportunities. 

To Teachers 

1. More and more helpful and inspiring supervision. 

2. Supervisors who can come when needed. 

3. Better school buildings. 

• 4. Better libraries and better equipment. 

5. A chance to grow and an inspiration to grow. 

6. Adequate salaries that grow as the teachers grow. 

7. Promotions based on merit and service. 

8. An opportunity to work in a community that is responsive. 

9. An opportunity to do the work for which he has prepared. 

10. Greater permanency of tenure. 

11. The guarantee of a standard school year in every school. 

To THE Taxpayers 

1. An economical and efficient administration of school 
revenues. 

2. More efficient schools, more efficient teachers, and more 
interest in the local school. 

3. The equalizing of educational burdens and opportunities. 

4. The saving of the interest now paid on school bonds. 

5. More economical purchasing of school supplies. 

6. The guarantee of wisely and properly constructed buildings. 

7. The establishment of high schools at a moderate cost. 

8. Properly selected libraries. 

9. The elimination of small expensive schools, when consolida- 
tion and transportation will be more economical. 

10. The adjustment of the present crazy-quilt district system. 



Organization for Administrative Purposes 367 

To THE County Superintendents 

1. His position becomes a professional one. 

2. He is removed from the influences of partisan politics. 

3. He is given an opportunity to grow and is given an incen- 
tive to grow. 

4. His salary grows as he grows. 

5. He has his traveling expenses paid and clerical help pro- 
vided. 

6. He has assistants and supervisors. 

7. He has a voice in the placing of teachers. 

8. He can see that good school buildings are erected and that 
these buildings are properly located and properly equipped. 

9. He is furnished with adequate machinery to make his work 
effective and can really build up his teachers and his schools. 

10. The position of county superintendent is made the most 
important educational position in the county. ^ 

What the Teacher Can Do. To get the county unit 
adopted in any state which does not have this system 
of organization will probably require the enactment 
of a county unit law by the state legislatiire. But 
legislators are nearly always willing to vote and work 
for the passage of a law which they know their con- 
stituents want. The first step, then, is to create 
public sentiment in favor of such a law. It is reported 
that when taxpayers understand the system thoroughly 
they are, almost without exception, in favor of it. 
Herein lies the teacher's opportunity to render a 
valuable service to rural schools. He can, if he be- 
lieves in the county unit, conduct a campaign of educa- 
tion among his patrons to the end that they may 
understand the features and advantages of this type 
of organization. It might well be made a topic for 
discussion on Parents' Day in the school, at a meeting 

^ Report of Committee on Larger School Unit. State Superin- 
tendent's Report for 1914, pp. 380-381. 



368 Rural School Management 

of the parent-teacher association, or at a social center 
gathering. Literature may be obtained from the 
sources Hsted at the end of this chapter. 

A good plan is for the teacher to go over the matter 
very carefully with two or three of his most prominent 
patrons with a view to getting them to favor the 
adoption of the system. These patrons could then 
be asked to take a leading part in the discussion when 
the question is under consideration at a public meeting. 
At the proper time a patrons' committee might be 
formed to circulate a petition among the voters of the 
district, or to take such other steps as might seem 
necessary to get their representative in the legislature 
to work for the passage of the county unit law. 

2. The Consolidation of Schools 

Meaning of Consolidation. A great deal has been 
said and written in recent years about the consolidation 
of schools. In general, this term means the uniting 
of two or more school districts to form a single larger 
district. In this larger district, one schoolhouse with 
two or more teachers frequently takes the place of the 
one-teacher schools that existed in the former districts. 
Nearly every state in the union now has laws which 
provide for some method of combining small schools 
to form larger districts. 

How Consolidation Is Effected. The process of 
bringing about the consolidation of schools varies with 
different states. 

In states where the district is the unit of school or- 
ganization, the usual method is by a vote of the people 
in the districts concerned. When a certain number 
of people living in adjoining school districts wish to 



Organization for Administrative Purposes 369 

have their schools consolidated, they petition their 
school boards or the county superintendent to have 
the question submitted to a vote. In some instances 
this vote is taken at a joint meeting of the voters in 
all of the territory affected and the question is decided 
by a majority of the votes cast. In other cases the 
proposition must receive a majority vote in all of the 
districts, each district voting separately from the 
others. Under either method, when the vote is for 
consolidation, arrangements are made for the election 
of a board of directors to take charge of, and carry on, 
the affairs of the new district thus formed. 

In some of the states where the township is the unit 
of organization, schools may be consolidated at the 
discretion of the township school board. But in 
other states consolidation can be effected only by 
vote of the people in the territory affected. 

Under the county unit system the matter of con- 
solidation is placed, in most cases, in the hands of 
the county board. This board has the power to move 
district boundary lines, to close or abandon small 
schools, to combine districts, and make provision for 
transporting pupils to and from the schools. 

Educators have observed that the movement for 
consolidation has made much more rapid progress 
where the township or the county unit prevails, than 
it has where the district system is in force. This 
fact is due in part, no doubt, to the increased powers 
which township and county boards have in such 
matters. Another reason is the local jealousies, prej- 
udices, and rivalries that often exist among schools 
under the district system. People are not likely to 
vote to consolidate where such conditions exist. Again, 
when a school has been maintained for a long time in a 



370 Rural School Management 

community, people become attached to it. A school 
becomes, in time, a sort of landmark, a community- 
tradition, which the people dislike to give up. Finally, 
and most important of all, perhaps, there is the opposi- 
tion of the wealthier districts to combining with poorer 
ones on account of the probability of an increase in the 
tax rate. 

Types of Consolidated Schools. Practices vary with 
different states and with different communities in the 
same state as to the kind of consolidated districts 
formed. Consequently, there are different types of 
consolidated schools. 

Union Schools. This type of school is formed simply 
by combining two, and in some instances more, very 
small districts to form a large one. The essential 
features of the union school are that the district must 
not contain more than ten or twelve square miles (not 
more than three and a half miles on a side), and the 
schoolhouse must be centrally located with reference 
to the population of the new district. Its chief ad- 
vantage over other types of consolidated schools is 
that no transportation of pupils is necessary. In 
such a district very few pupils live more than one and 
a half miles from the schoolhouse. The chief weak- 
nesses are that such a school furnishes no high school 
opportunities and very few social advantages. 

The Town Consolidated School. This is one of the 
most common types of consolidated schools. It is 
formed by combining two or more districts, one of 
which contains a town or village school. The town 
school becomes the consolidated school, and provision 
is made for transporting the pupils from the out- 
lying portions of the new district. Such schools 
usually maintain a high school department and also 



Organization for Administrative Purposes 371 

afford better social advantages than are found in the 
union schools. 

The Centralized Township School. Another type 
of consolidated school is formed by uniting all, or 
nearly all, of the districts in a township into a single 
district with one large school for all of the children. 
Where this is done, the district schoolhouses are 
abandoned and sold and a new building is erected 
near the center of the township. Pupils are trans- 
ported to and from the school at public expense. The 
centralized school is both a grade school and a high 
school. In many instances it is provided with a 
demonstration farm, adequate playgrounds and athletic 
fields, and an assembly room for community meetings 
of various sorts. Many educators regard this as the 
very best type of consolidated school. 

Partially Consolidated Schools. Under this plan the 
one-teacher schools are retained, but are limited to the 
teaching of the first four or five grades of work, and 
special schools are provided for all pupils who have 
completed these grades. When pupils have completed 
the work in their local schools, they are transported 
at public expense to the special schools, where they 
may complete the elementary school course and receive 
one or two years of high school work besides. 

The Transportation of Pupils. It will be observed 
that with every type of consolidated school, except 
one, the transportation of some of the pupils to and 
from the school becomes necessary. This constitutes 
a very important problem in connection with con- 
solidation. If the methods of transporting pupils are 
not satisfactory, the consolidated school loses many 
of its advantages over the ordinary district school. 
Methods of transporting pupils are of two main types : 



372 Rural School Management 

(1) public conveyances which follow regular routes, 
and (2) private or family transportation for which 
parents are paid out of the district funds. 

Public Conveyances. In a great many consohdated 
districts children are transported by means of school 
wagons or hacks which follow regular routes to and 
from the school. The wagons make regular stops at 
the places most convenient for the children, and pupils 
are required to meet the wagons at these places. 
The wagons are run on schedule time, thus preventing 
the exposure of the children to bad weather conditions 
while waiting at the stopping places. 

Two features are essential to the success of this 
method of transportation. (1) The driver must be a 
thoroughly reliable and competent man or woman. 
He must be a person who can be depended upon to 
prevent all avoidable accidents, to exercise a whole- 
some moral influence over the pupils, and to preserve 
good order among the children while en route to and 
from the school. (2) The wagon must be both safe 
and comfortable for children. Vehicles built especially 
for this purpose are used in many districts. They 
are usually covered hacks, busses, or automobiles with 
seats extending lengthwise, curtain sides and glass 
windows in front and rear. In some sections provision 
must be made for heating the wagons. This is usually 
done by means of a coal or oil stove. 

Private Conveyance. Another plan for the trans- 
portation of pupils is for the district to pay the parents 
a certain sum per day for conveying their own children 
to school. Under this method parents may use any 
sort of conveyance they wish. Sometimes the children 
go on horseback, or drive the rig themselves, keeping 
the horses in sheds or barns at the school during the 



Organization for Administrative Purposes S73 

day. In other instances some member of the family- 
makes two trips to the school — one to take the 
children and another to bring them home. In some 
communities steam railways or electric car lines furnish 
a satisfactory means of transportation. 

The method of transporting school children is, in 
general, a local problem. No rule can be laid down 
as to which method is the better. Some communities 
prefer the public conveyance, while other communities 
can use the private conveyance plan to best advantage. 

Benefits of Consolidation. Educators who are famil- 
iar with the work of consolidated schools hold that 
they have many advantages over one-room rural 
schools. Mr. N. C. Macdonald, who was for several 
years state inspector of consolidated, graded, and 
rural schools for North Dakota, summarizes the bene- 
fits of consolidation as follows : 

1. Increases the attendance. 

2. Makes the attendance more regular. 

3. Increases the enrollment. 

4. Keeps the older pupils in the school longer, giving a form 
of the continuation school. 

5. Provides high school privileges at one-third the cost to 
the community, and one-fifteenth the cost to the individual patron. 

6. Makes possible the securing of better trained teachers. 

7. Improves industrial conditions in the country, including 
improved roads and farms. 

8. Results in higher salaries for better trained teachers. 

9. Makes possible more and better grade school work. 

10. Enriches the civic-social life activities. 

11. Conserves more largely the health and morals of the 
children. 

12. Increases the number of eighth grade completions. 

13. Provides adequate supervision. 

14. Reduces truancy and tardiness. 

15. Develops better school spirit. ' 

16. Gives more time for recitations. 



874 Rural School Management 

17. Increases the value of real estate. 

18. Produces greater pride and interest in country life. 

19. Prevents the drift to the larger towns and cities. 

20. Brings more and better equipped buildings. 

21. Eliminates the small weak school. 

22. Creates a school of greater worth, dignity, and usefulness. 

23. Makes possible a more economical school. 

24. Provides equal educational opportunities. 

25. Gives much greater and better results in every way.^ 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Carney : Country Life and the Country School, Chapter VIII. 
Charters: The County School Unit (Paper read before the 

Educational Council of the Missouri State Teachers' Associa- 
tion.) 
CuBBERLEY : Rural Life and Education, Chapters VIII and X. 
FOGHT : The American Rural School, Chapters II and XV. 
Kern : Among Country Schools, Chapter XII. 
Macdonald : The Consolidated School in North Dakota. (Issued 

by State Board of Education.) 
Monahan : The Status of Rural Education in the United States. 

(U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1913, No. 8.) 
Monahan: Consolidation of Rural Schools. (U. S. Bureau of 

Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 30.) 
Monahan: County-Unit Organization for the Administration of 

Rural Schools. (U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, 

No. 44.) 
Report of the Committee on a Larger School Unit. (Published in 

Report of State Superintendent of Missouri Schools for 1914.) 
Williams: Reorganizing a County System of Schools. (U. S. 

Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1916, No. 16.) 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. What type of organization for the administration of rural 
schools is in force in your own state? Describe the organization 
in detail. 

2. How would you justify taxing the people in the wealthy 
districts to help educate the children in the poorer districts, as 
is done under the county-unit system ? 

1 The Consolidated School in North Dakota, pp. 8-9. 



Organization for Administrative Purposes 375 

3. State the arguments you would use in a campaign for the 
adoption of the county unit plan in your state. 

4. What arguments might be made against this system? 

5. Just how is the consolidation of schools effected in your 
state? Describe the process in detail. 

6. What arguments would you use in a campaign for consolida- 
tion in your district ? State the points clearly. 

7. Which, in your opinion, would be preferable for a state 
having the district type of organization, a law providing for the 
consolidation of districts, or a law adopting the county unit 
system? Give specific reasons for your answer. 



CHAPTER XVII 
BOYS' AND GIRLS' AGRICULTURE CLUBS 

I. FUNCTIONS OF BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUBS 

Meaning of Boys' and Girls' Club Work. The last 
few years have witnessed the rise and rapid growth of a 
movement which seems fraught with immeasurable 
importance to rural life. This boon to country people 
is known as the Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Club 
Movement. Club work of the kind here referred to 
consists in carrying on some definite activity or enter- 
prise that is of special importance on the farm or in 
the home. Enterprises for the boys necessarily vary 
with different localities. In some communities corn 
growing and beef and pork production are the best 
projects or lines of work to undertake, while in other 
communities dairying or poultry or potato raising 
may offer the best opportunities for the club's activities. 
For the girls such projects as canning, food preparation, 
and garment making are appropriate for any com- 
munity. 

To the end that the work may be carried on with 
the greatest interest and effectiveness, the young 
people are organized to form local clubs. Each local 
club is under the supervision of a local leader and, in 
many instances, has its own set of officers. Further- 
more, these local clubs are federated into county, 
state, and national organizations. Thus it is seen 
that the work is highly organized. When one joins a 
local club, he becomes a member of a national organiza- 

376 



Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 377 

tion and engages in an enterprise in which hundreds 
of other young people are his associates. 

The Better Training of Country Youth. The fore- 
most function of the club movement is to give country 
boys and girls a better type of training than they are 
receiving, in many cases, under present conditions. 
It seems only fair that young people who may be 
reasonably expected to spend their lives on the farm 
should be given the kind of education that will enable 
them to get the largest possible returns from their 
farms, make their home life most satisfying, and dis- 
charge the duties of citizenship in the most efficient 
manner. Club work furnishes an excellent means of 
supplying some phases of this kind of education. 
At least three of the educational values of the work 
to young people deserve special mention : (1) It gives 
vocational insight and skill ; (2) it serves as an in- 
centive for other forms of school work; and (3) it 
affords a good opportunity for social training. 

Vocational Training. Club work, as we have seen, 
is the actual carrying on by the boys and girls of some 
important farm or home pursuit. Through the as- 
sistance of the local, county, state, and national 
leaders, the members of the club acquire and apply 
the best information available concerning the project 
selected. In a corn club, for instance, the boys learn 
and put into actual practice the best methods of 
choosing the seed, preparing the soil, cultivating the 
crop, and marketing or otherwise disposing of the 
product. Similarly, in a potato club or pig club or 
a poultry club, the members acquire such technical 
knowledge and skill as will enable them to produce the 
best results at the least expense. The members of 
cooking, canning, and sewing clubs learn how to per- 



378 Rural School Management 

form these activities in the best way and with the least 
outlay of labor and money. 

It is clear, therefore, that one result of this vocational 
training is to make farm pursuits more profitable and 
home life more pleasurable — two things that are 
necessary to make country life appeal to the best 
type of young men and women. A second, but no 
less important, result is found in the influence of such 
training on the character of young people. It is an 
invaluable means of developing initiative, resource- 
fulness, leadership. It furnishes pleasurable and profit- 
able emplojnnent, fixes habits of work and thrift, and 
stimulates the spirit of progressiveness. In the train- 
ing of future citizens, the importance of such matters 
as these cannot be overestimated. A third result of 
the vocational aspect of club work lies in the insight 
into, the knowledge of, science that it gives. In 
conducting a farm project the boys learn important 
facts about plants, animals, the soil, climate, etc. 
They come to see the relations ; that is, the dependence, 
the helpfulness or harmfulness, the fitness, of things 
in nature. In a cooking club the girls must acquire 
some knowledge of chemistry, physiology, and hygiene ; 
for one of the aims of this work is to teach why as well 
as how certain things should be done. This knowledge 
of science, even though it is elementary, constitutes a 
valuable kind of training, regardless of the vocation 
the young people may follow in later life. 

An Incentive to School Work. Club work con- 
tributes greatly to the training of youth by supplying 
an incentive to study some of the usual common school 
branches. We have already learned (Chapter XI) 
that the best incentive to study is to have a definite 
purpose, the attainment of which requires the use or 



Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 379 

mastery of the things studied. Club work furnishes 
just such a situation as this. The members are en- 
gaged in something they want to do; they have a 
definite purpose to attain. In order to follow the 
instructions of the leaders and get the information 
they need, they must be able to read intelligently. 
Here is a strong incentive to read for the thought 
contained in the printed circulars, bulletins, etc. In 
many of the club projects, an accurate account of the 
cost of production, receipts, and profits is required. 
This furnishes an excellent incentive for and practice 
in making arithmetical computations. Generally, too, 
a written report of how the project was carried on 
constitutes a part of the club exhibit. The pupil's 
desire to have a good report is a strong incentive to 
write legibly, spell and punctuate correctly, arrange 
his thoughts logically, and state them clearly. This is 
excellent language training. 

Social Training. Practically all young people have 
what psychologists call a gregarious or gang instinct. 
This is one form of the social instinct. It is the tend- 
ency or desire of young people, at certain ages, to 
form teams, societies, or clubs. Educators hold now 
that instead of trying to suppress this instinct we should 
cultivate it and direct it in ways that are beneficial 
to all concerned. 

Through associating or mingling with one another, 
young people learn some very important lessons. 
They become less selfish. They learn the ways of 
other people, and how to cooperate with and help one 
another. They become broader in their views and 
acquire a deeper and more sympathetic interest in 
other people. These are some of the qualities that 
make for the best type of citizenship. 



380 Rural School Management 

Local boys' and girls' clubs offer excellent opportuni- 
ties for the kind of training just mentioned. In most 
cases it is possible for the club to hold occasional 
meetings, say once or twice a month. Such meetings 
have a twofold purpose: (1) to discuss matters per- 
taining to the club work and transact the necessary 
business affairs, and (2) to bring young people to- 
gether for wholesome recreation and enjoyment. If 
the meetings are rightly conducted, both the business 
and recreational features will afford invaluable social 
training. 

Improvement of Present Conditions. In addition to 
training the youth who are to be the rural citizens of 
the next generation, the club movement seeks to im- 
prove conditions for the farmers and homemakers of 
the present. It is one of the means now employed for 
bringing to the rural citizens of to-day the information 
they need to make their pursuits yield a larger return 
both in money and in contentment. What the boys 
and girls learn and achieve through their club projects, 
spreads throughout the community and results in an 
immediate iraprovement along those lines. The corn 
club furnishes a good illustration. According to the 
president of the Ohio Agricultural Commission the 
corn club boys of that state were responsible for rais- 
ing the average yield of corn per acre from thirty-five 
bushels to eighty-one, a gain of $20,000,000 a year to 
the state. Jerry Moore, a fifteen-year old corn club 
boy of South Carolina, raised 228 bushels of corn on 
one acre of land. " Within three years after that the 
corn crop of South Carolina jumped from 17,000,000 
bushels to 50,000,000. And the yield per acre in 
every one of the fifteen Southern States has increased 
since Jerry Moore's exploit." The mother-daughter 



Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 381 

canning club in which hundreds of mothers are work- 
ing side by side with their daughters is another illus- 
tration of the influence of the movement upon adults 
and present conditions. Similar illustrations could be 
cited from other club projects, but these are sufficient 
to show that the movement is bringing about an 
immediate improvement of the conditions of rural 
life. To bring about, on a widespread scale, just such 
changes as these is one of the main purposes of the 
club movement. 

Uniting School and Home. A third main purpose 
of agricultural club work is to bring the rural school 
and the rural home into a more intimate relationship 
with each other, to make them mutually helpful. 
It has been charged that many of our country schools 
are as well adapted to the needs of a mining or a manu- 
facturing town as they are to the needs of a farming 
community. The work and the activities of the rural 
school, it is claimed, ought to be directed more par- 
ticularly to the training of young people for life in 
the country and to helping country people improve 
present conditions. The giving of this vocational 
training is not the only function of the rural school, 
but it is an important function and one which is not 
sufficiently provided for in many schools. And the 
failure of the school to supply this fundamental need 
is one of the reasons why it has not received a more 
loyal support on the part of its patrons. 

Now one of the objects of the club movement is 
to demonstrate to teachers some of the ways in which 
rural schools can render a practical service both to 
their pupils and to the community at large. In return 
for this service, it is believed that the patrons of the 
school will rally to support the school and make it 



382 Rural School Management 

possible for the school to do all of its work in the most 
efficient manner A school which helps both children 
and adults to appreciate and to make the most of the 
possibilities of country life and which is in turn en- 
couraged and loyally supported in all of its work by 
its patrons — to bring about this relationship is one 
of the chief purposes of club work among boys and girls. 

Summary. Boys' and girls' agriculture clubs are organiza- 
tions of young people for the actual carrying on of some important 
farm or home activity to the end that they may learn and put 
into practice the best methods of conducting such pursuits. 
The principal functions of these clubs are: (1) to give young 
people the type of training that will best fit them for life in the 
country; (2) to improve the present economic and home life 
conditions of rural communities; and (3) to establish between 
the school and the home a relationship of mutual helpfulness. 



n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

The Problem of Trained Leaders. The success of 
club activities depends, in a large measure, on the 
efficiency of those who are in charge of the work. The 
national leaders are experts connected with the United 
States Department of Agriculture. They are chosen 
because of their special fitness for this line of work 
and may be depended on to do their part well. The 
state leaders, likewise, are specialists in matters per- 
taining to farm and home pursuits and are, therefore, 
thoroughly capable of directing the club affairs in 
their states. But neither the national nor the state 
leaders can personally supervise club activities in all 
communities. To offset this difficulty, county and 
local leaders are needed. 

The county superintendent of schools is, perhaps, 
the most desirable person to serve as county leader. 



Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 383 

There are two reasons for this view. (1) Since the 
club project represents a kind of work which the 
schools ought to give, encouraging and aiding the 
club work is a splendid means of promoting the use- 
fulness of the schools. (2) By combining the func- 
tions of superintendent of schools and club leader in 
the same official there is a strong probability that the 
club work will come to be regarded as a regular phase 
of the school's work. This combining of the school 
and the club work is an end very much to be desired. 
In those counties where there is a county farm agent, 
this officer makes a valuable assistant to the superin- 
tendent in this phase of the latter's duties. The lack 
of special training or previous experience along the 
line of club work need not prevent the superintendent 
from serving as county leader. With the assistance 
of the national and state leaders and the various 
'' helps " that are now available, the task is not an 
especially difficult one, and any superintendent who 
will devote a little time to the matter can easily make 
a success of the movement in his county. 

The greatest difficulty arises in connection with the 
local leader. There are three very good reasons why 
the teacher of the local school should serve in this 
capacity. (1) Club work offers the best means of 
introducing practical agriculture and home economics 
into the schools. (2) It furnishes an incentive for, 
and therefore improves, the work of the school in 
other subjects. (3) Club work is educative in pur- 
pose and nature and, therefore, logically falls under 
the supervision of the educational leader of the com- 
munity. 

But in many instances the teacher is an inexperienced, 
timid girl or boy who has had little or no training in 



384 Rural School Management 

either agriculture or home economics. Often, too, he 
is city-bred, has city ideals, and is ignorant of country- 
life conditions and problems. But club work is al- 
ready well organized and is easily managed. National 
and state leaders furnish definite instructions for 
conducting the various projects. Any teacher, there- 
fore, who is willing to devote a little time and energy 
to the matter may become a successful leader of the 
club work in his community. 

Objections to Club Meetings. In some instances 
local leaders encounter objections to the holding of 
club meetings. Sometimes parents object to their 
children being away from home evenings. Occasion- 
ally, too, especially when the schools are in session, 
the services of the children are needed at home on 
Saturday afternoons. Hence it is not practicable to 
hold the club meetings at these times. Another ob- 
jection raised by some parents is that the meetings 
are of no value to the children. 

It should be understood, in the first place, that 
very frequent meetings are neither necessary nor 
desirable. In no case should the meetings occur so 
often as to make a heavy demand on the time of the 
members or draw their attention away from their 
home duties. A meeting once or, at most, twice a 
month is ample for the purposes for which the meet- 
ings are held. Secondly, sl little personal work on the 
part of the teacher or leader will usually overcome 
any objections parents may have to the meetings. 
When once the importance of the club work and the 
value of the meetings are clearly understood, most 
parents are willing for their children to attend the 
meetings. A personal interview with the parent is 
the best method of establishing this understanding. 



Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 385 

Thirdly, in case all efforts to remove the objections 
fail, the meetings may be dispensed with. Club 
meetings, as we have seen, constitute an important 
phase of the work because of the social training they 
afford. But they are not absolutely essential to the 
success of a club enterprise. A club project can be 
carried forward with much profit both to the young 
people and to the community at large, even though 
no club meetings are held. Hence the objections of 
parents to the holding of such meetings should not 
be permitted to prevent the launching of club work 
in any community. 

The Dropping Out of Members. How to prevent 
members from dropping the work before the club 
project is completed is a serious problem in some 
instances. The dropping of club work by members 
is most common during the summer vacation, when 
there is no school and no local leader on the ground 
to help and encourage the members. It is quite 
common also in those cases where there is no local 
organization or regular meetings of the members. 
When young people are deprived of the stimulating 
influence of a leader and of contact with others work- 
ing along the same lines, it is quite natural that some 
of them will become discouraged and drop the work 
before it is finished. 

Obviously the best remedy for this difficulty is a 
local leader who resides in the community, one who 
can be present at all times to direct the work and 
assist and encourage the members. The holding of 
regular club meetings where members may exchange 
views and experiences is also a good method of pre- 
venting the dropping out of those who have started 
the work. Again, contests, exhibits of club products, 



386 Rural School Management 



and prizes have been found to be excellent means of 
holding members until the work is completed. 
Methods of conducting these latter features are dis- 
cussed in the next section. 

Summary. The chief difficulties encountered in boys' and 
girls' club work are: (1) the lack of well-trained local leaders; 
(2) the objections of parents to the holding of club meetings; 
and (3) the dropping out of members. With the assistance of 
national, state, and county leaders any teacher who is ambitious 
to serve his community can become a good club leader. The 
objections to club meetings can usually be overcome by personal 
work on the part of the teacher. Much, if not all, of the drop- 
ping out of members can be prevented by having a local leader 
in charge all the time, regular meetings of the club, and well- 
conducted contests and exhibits. 

III. HOW TO ORGANIZE AND CONDUCT BOYS' AND 
GIRLS' CLUBS 

We have just learned that the success of the club 
movement in any community depends, to a consider- 
able extent, on the local leader, and that the teacher 
is the logical person to serve in this capacity. The 
purpose of this section is to point out a few things 
that may help the teacher to initiate and carry on 
this important line of work in connection with his 
school. 

Preliminary Preparation. In initiating the club 
movement, the first step is to decide what club or 
clubs should be formed. Since the farm activities 
differ in different localities, those projects should be 
chosen which are of special importance in the com- 
munity. For the boys there are corn clubs, pig clubs, 
baby beef clubs, dairy clubs, poultry clubs, potato 
clubs, garden clubs, farm handicraft clubs, etc. Pro- 
jects suitable for girls are canning, food preparation, 



Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 387 

bread baking, garment making, and home handi- 
crafts. 

Having decided what clubs should be formed, the 
teacher should write to the county or state leader 
for membership pledge cards and rules governing the 
projects selected. If there is no county leader and 
the name of the state leader is not known to the teacher, 
the material and the name and address of the state 
leader can be obtained from the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture at Washington, D.C. The rules 
and instructions governing the projects should be 
thoroughly mastered before the date set for organizing 
the club. 

The Campaign for Members. Arrangements should 
be made, if possible, to have the county leader or some 
experienced club worker present at a patrons' meeting 
at the schoolhouse. A Parents' Day at the school is a 
good time to launch the movement. The county 
leader or special club worker should be called upon 
to explain the purposes, value, and nature of the 
club work. In the absence of the county leader or 
special worker, this explanation may be given by the 
teacher or, preferably, by some prominent patron 
who has been previously informed of and won to the 
teacher's plans. After the explanation opportunity 
may be given for general discussion and questions. 
Before the meeting adjourns, the names of all pupils 
between the ages of ten and eighteen, inclusive, who 
are willing to join the club should be enrolled. 

As soon as practicable after the public meeting, a 
canvass of the district should be made for the purpose 
of enlisting as many as possible of the young people 
who are not in school. All young people between 
the above-mentioned age limits are eligible for mem- 



388 Rural School Management 

bership, and every one should be given an opportunity 
to join the club. If the county leader or visiting 
club worker can spare the time to do so, he should 
make the canvass. Otherwise it may be made by 
the teacher alone or in company with some interested 
and influential patron. 

Forming the Organization. The forming of a local 
organization is not absolutely essential, but it is highly 
desirable. In every conimunity where it is possible 
to hold regular meetings of the club, a definite or- 
ganization should be formed. Accordingly, as soon 
as convenient after the canvass for members has been 
completed, a meeting should be held for the purpose 
of perfecting the organization. Officers, including a 
president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer, 
should be elected from the club members, a constitu- 
tion and by-laws adopted, and the necessary com- 
mittees appointed. Complete instructions covering all 
of these points, especially the constitution and by-laws, 
should be obtained beforehand from the county or 
state leader. With these instructions mastered, the 
forming of the organization will be an easy matter. 

Conducting the Club Work. With the organization 
completed, the members are ready to start the work 
in the projects chosen. When the names of the mem- 
bers have been sent to the office of the state leader, 
printed instructions will be sent, at certain intervals, 
to each member. From this point on, the work will 
consist in carrying out the instructions received and 
in supplementing these with information obtained from 
books, agricultural bulletins, etc. 

For the purpose of illustration let us suppose that 
one of the clubs formed is an Acre Corn Club. The 
work to be done is to select the seed, prepare the soil 



Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 389 

bed, plant and cultivate the corn, weigh the harvested 
crop, keep an accurate record of the cost of production 
and receipts, and the writing of an essay on " How I 
Made My Crop." The information needed in each 
phase of the work can be obtained from the printed 
instructions and from books and bulletins dealing with 
the subject of corn growing. 

As another illustration let us take the Cooking Club. 
In this case the work includes such matters as : prep- 
aration for cooking; the making of measurements; 
the kinds, uses, and values of foods ; the actual cook- 
ing of certain foods such as eggs, meats, vegetables, 
etc. Here, again, recourse is had to the printed in- 
structions, books, and bulletins for the information 
needed to carry on the work. 

Contests, Exhibits, and Prizes. In order to create 
and maintain a deeper interest in the work, club pro- 
jects are usually conducted as contests between the 
members to see who can produce the best results. 
When the work has been finished, a public display 
or exhibit of the products is held. Each member is 
expected to exhibit selected samples of his product 
or work ; an accurate record of the expenses, receipts, 
and profits ; and a carefully written report or " story " 
telling just how the results were accomplished. Com- 
petent persons are selected to judge the exhibits. To 
the member who has the best exhibit the first prize 
is awarded, to the one who has the next best, the 
second prize, and so on. 

The giving of prizes necessarily involves some ex- 
pense. The funds for this purpose are usually donated 
by business men and societies or organizations, such as 
bankers, merchants, farmers, railroad officials, com- 
mercial clubs, granges, etc. In general, public-spirited 



390 Rural School Management 

men are so deeply interested in the success of the 
movement that they are wilhng to furnish the funds 
necessary to insure the best possible results. 

Conclusion. The boys' and girls' club movement 
is fraught with so much importance both to the young 
people and to the community as a whole that one or 
more clubs should be formed in every district where 
they do not now exist. The teacher is the logical 
person to start the work. Previous experience or 
special training in this particular field is not absolutely 
essential. Any teacher who has the welfare of country 
life, both present and future, at heart and is willing to 
spend a little of his time in studying instructions can 
carry on the work successfully. The United States 
Department of Agriculture maintains a corps of ex- 
perts who are devoting their best energies to the 
cause. Most of the states have able club workers, 
trained men and women who are doing all they can 
to promote the movement. In a great many counties 
the superintendent of schools or some other interested 
person is striving to bring the benefits of the work to 
every community in his county. The services of all 
of these agencies may be had for the asking. The 
club movement needs the school and the school needs 
the club. Why not organize one or more in every 
district? The teacher himself has much to gain and 
nothing to lose by championing the cause in his com- 
munity. 

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING 

Betts and Hall : Better Rural Schools, Chapter VI. 
Carney : Country Life and the Country School, pp. 96-107. 
CUBBERLEY : Rural Life and Education, pp. 144-146. 



Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 391 

Curtis : Play and Recreation, Chapter VII. 
FOGHT : The American Rural School, Chapter XI. 
Kern : Among Country Schools, Chapter VII. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. It is well known that a great many country boys and girls 
leave the farm and go to the cities and towns to find employment. 
Why, in your opinion, do they do so ? What effect, if any, would 
you expect agricultural club work to have on this tendency? 
How? 

2. Of what value, if any, is agricultural club work to boys 
and girls who may not become farmers or farmers' wives ? 

3. In your opinion, what club projects should be started in 
your community? Why? Procure the opinion of your county 
superintendent or state leader and see whether it agrees with 
your opinion. 

4. Write to your state leader for copies of all instructions and 
bulletins bearing on the club projects promoted in your state, 
and for a list of government publications on the same projects. 
Make a collection of these, classify them, and place them in your 
school library. 

5. Give the arguments for and against the giving of cash or 
other valuable prizes for club work. 

6. Describe in detail how you would conduct a club exhibit. 
Give two important values of such an exhibit. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE TEACHER 

I. FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 

The teacher is by far the most potent factor in the 
making of the school. All- of the agencies we have 
named are very important, but none of them counts 
for so much in the success of the school as does a 
good teacher. With an efficient teacher in charge, 
even a poorly equipped school may do a noble work 
both for the children and for the community at large. 
But with a poor teacher no school can accomplish 
its purposes in the fullest measure. 

In general, the school will do no more for the com- 
munity than the teacher thinks it ought to do. It 
is extremely important, therefore, that the teacher 
have a clear understanding of the functions of the 
school and of the part he himself should play in the 
community. He should have a clear vision of his own 
mission in the community and sufficient initiative 
and zeal to put his ideas into practice. 

The Educational Leader. Attention has been called 
repeatedly to the fact that the primary function of the 
school is to train boys and girls for efficient citizenship. 
The foremost function of the teacher, therefore, is to 
teach the children of the community. 

By virtue of his position the teacher is the educa- 
tional leader in his district. He is employed primarily 
because he is supposed to know how to teach and 
govern the school. He is regarded as a specialist in 

392 



The Teacher 393 



this work, and the people look to him to give their 
children the kind of training they need. He is ex- 
pected to know what sort of training the pupils should 
receive, what subjects they should study, how the 
instruction in these subjects can be given most effec- 
tively, and how to maintain order in the school and 
on the school premises. 

But according to our present view educational 
leadership involves more than teaching classes and 
governing pupils. To be a real leader the teacher 
must know how to arouse interest in the school among 
its patrons. He must know what improvements are 
needed to make the school premises healthful and 
beautiful. He must know how to conduct school 
exhibits and fairs and playground activities, what 
equipment the school needs, and how to raise funds 
for purchasing the same. Briefly stated, the educa- 
tional leader is one who knows what the best present- 
day school practices are and gets them introduced 
in his own school. He creates a public sentiment, 
gradually it may be, which makes possible the condi- 
tions found in, and the attainments of, the best schools. 

Community Improvement. But the teacher has 
other functions besides those that pertain to the train- 
ing of children. He is, or ought to be, an important 
factor in the improvement of the community in general. 
He ought to initiate and take an active part in move- 
ments that tend to promote the welfare of all of the 
people. Much of the lack of progi'ess in rural com- 
munities is due to the fact that there is no one to 
point the way to better things. Before the advent 
of good roads, automobiles, and telephones, farm 
homes were isolated. People had few or no oppor- 
tunities to meet or to learn from one another and from 



394 Rural School Management 

the outside world. Country people naturally follow 
the same pursuit in general, and this tends to develop 
a narrow interest in life. Such conditions have been 
unfavorable to the development of leaders. Conse- 
quently, life in the country is, or has been, more or 
less of a routine, a doing of the same things in the 
same way from year to year. 

Because of his position and special training, the 
teacher is the logical person to take the lead in com- 
munity improvement. Opportunities for service of 
this sort have been mentioned in our discussion of 
the social center work of the school (Chapter XV). 
Among the things that any teacher can do may be 
mentioned the giving of entertainments at the school ; 
providing for lectures by outside speakers on topics 
of interest to farmers and housewives; conducting a 
rural lyceum or extension course, play festivals, and 
other athletic meets; helping to organize boys' and 
girls' and farmers' clubs, granges, parent-teacher as- 
sociations, and literary societies. 

These are a few of the ways in which the teacher 
may be instrumental in bringing about better condi- 
tions in the community he serves. The rendering of 
such service is now regarded as an important part of 
the teacher's mission. 

Summary. The success or failure of the school depends in a 
very large measure on the teacher. Every teacher should have 
a clear understanding of what his functions are. These functions 
fall into two groups; namely, educational leadership and com- 
munity improvement. 

n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 

It is a well-known fact that rural teachers as a class 
are not so well trained and efficient as are the teachers 



The Teacher 395 



in town and city schools. The reason for this condi- 
tion is that many of the best quaUfied teachers leave 
the country schools for positions in the towns just 
as soon as they have demonstrated their ability to 
teach. Our problem here is to see why it is so diffi- 
cult for rural communities to get and retain well- 
trained, experienced, and successful teachers for their 
schools. 

The Teacher's Boarding Place. One of the most 
serious hindrances to retaining the best teachers in 
country schools is the difficulty sometimes encoimtered 
in finding a satisfactory boarding place in the district. 
So serious is this difficulty that in some instances 
teachers have had to curtain off a portion of the school- 
room and establish living quarters in the schoolhouse. 
In other instances teachers have had to appeal to the 
county superintendent to help them get a place to 
room and board in the district. Teachers have been 
known to resign simply because they could not procure 
a place to live. Sometimes the only place open to the 
teacher is at a great distance from the schoolhouse. 
Teachers are sometimes forced to share not only the 
living room but also the sleeping room with members 
of the family with whom they stay. They have no 
privacy, no place to study or prepare their school 
work. It frequently happens that the room assigned 
to the teacher is poorly furnished, unattractive, and 
uncomfortable. 

Conditions are not so bad as this in all districts. 
Such instances are the exception, perhaps, rather than 
the rule; but they are more numerous than they 
should be. It is not at all surprising that good teachers 
are unwilling to teach in a district where reasonably 
satisfactory living quarters cannot be obtained. 



396 Rural School Management 

Low Salaries. Teachers' salaries are lower in rural 
districts than they are in city schools. Rural teachers 
teach the children of 53.7 per cent of the entire popula- 
tion, but receive only 45.5 per cent of the total amount 
spent for salaries. Since the average annual salary 
for all teachers is $485, it is clear that the average 
salary for rural teachers must be considerably less 
than this amount. It is not to be expected that our 
best teachers will prefer to teach in country schools, 
unless the salaries in these schools are made more 
attractive. 

Large Number of Classes. A great many teachers 
dislike to teach in rural schools because of the large 
number of classes they have to handle. Most teachers 
are earnest and conscientious and like to do their 
work well. But, because of overwork and a lack of 
time, they find it impossible to accomplish in a rural 
school the results they desire. Consequently, they 
seek positions in the town or city schools where they 
have fewer classes and can do their work more nearly 
as they think it ought to be done. 

This difficulty has been overcome, in a large measure, 
in many schools by adopting some such scheme of 
alternating grades as we have described in an earlier 
chapter (see Chapter VIII). 

Other Difficulties. Among the other difficulties 
which teachers encounter in rural schools, the follow- 
ing are probably the most common : 

Poorly heated and ventilated buildings. 

Unattractive grounds. 

Lack of equipment. 

No janitor. 

Irregular attendance. 

Terms often too short. 



The Teacher 397 



Too much exposure. 
Little or no chance to attend church. 
Too few agreeable companions. 

Too few lectures, entertainments, books, magazines, and news- 
papers. 

Little chance for improvement. 

It will be observed that several of these difficulties 
could be overcome by the teachers if they knew how 
to attack the problem. We have already learned how 
the teacher may be the means of getting the school 
premises made more hygienic, comfortable, and attrac- 
tive ; how he may procure needed equipment for the 
school ; how he may promote regularity of attendance ; 
and how he and the school may enrich the social life 
of the community. With the coming of the social 
center, telephones, automobiles, and daily rural mail 
service, there are fewer reasons why teachers should 
find life in a country district altogether disagreeable. 

Summary. Country districts usually experience some diffi- 
culty in securing and retaining well-qualified, successful teachers. 
The chief reasons are: (1) unsatisfactory rooming and boarding 
places for teachers; (2) low salaries; (3) too many classes; 

(4) poor buildings, unattractive premises, and lack of equipment ; 

(5) lack of social intercourse and recreation. 



m. HOW TO GET BETTER TEACHERS 

In spite of the difficulties we have enumerated, there 
are a great many excellent teachers in the rural schools 
of the country. Notwithstanding this fact, educators 
agree that the greatest need in education at the present 
time is a larger number of specially prepared teachers 
for country schools. To supply this need two things 
are necessary : (1) Those who teach in rural communi- 



398 Rural School Management 

ties must be better qualified, better trained for their 
work; and (2) some means must be employed for 
retaining these teachers in rural schools. 



1. The Training of Rural Teachers 

The problem of training teachers for rural schools 
involves a consideration of two questions : (1) Just 
what preparation or training should the teacher have ? 
(2) How or where can this training best be given ? 

Preparation of the Teacher. The training given as 
a preparation for teaching is of two kinds — academic 
and professional. These we shall consider in the 
order named. 

Academic Preparation. The academic preparation 
of a teacher pertains to his general scholarship. It 
consists in acquiring a knowledge of the main branches 
of learning, such as literature, history, science, mathe- 
matics, music, and art. 

There is at present no general rule defining the 
amount of scholarship the teacher should possess. 
Every rural teacher is expected to be able to teach 
all of the common school subjects. To do this he 
must have a reasonably thorough knowledge of these 
branches. But it is well understood that a teacher 
should have considerably more knowledge of these 
and related subjects than he expects to impart to 
his pupils. This means that the teacher should 
have an education considerably in advance of that 
which an elementary or grammar school course repre- 
sents. Most educators hold that scholarship or train- 
ing equivalent to graduation from a good four-year 
high school should be required as the minimum aca- 
demic preparation for all teachers in rural and grade 



The Teacher 399 



schools. This standard is already in effect in some 
states and will probably soon become the general 
rule. 

The purpose of this academic preparation, from the 
standpoint of the prospective teacher, is twofold. 
First. It serves to give him a better grasp of, and a 
clearer insight into, the common school branches. 
The person who has studied history, mathematics, 
science, and literature in the high school will have a 
much clearer understanding of United States history, 
arithmetic, geography, nature study, etc., as these 
are taught in the elementary school. A thorough 
knowledge of the subjects he teaches is the most 
essential preparation the teacher can make. It helps 
him in various ways. It inspires confidence in him, 
helps him to make the work more interesting, leads to 
faithful study, promotes good order in the school, and 
creates a desire for more knowledge on the part of 
pupils. Second. The academic preparation serves, or 
should serve, to train the teacher in those so-called 
special subjects that should be taught in every rural 
school; namely, agriculture, domestic science, and 
manual training. The new ruralism demands that 
country children shall be well trained in the subjects 
that pertain to the farm and farm life as well as in the 
subjects that are important for all children irrespec- 
tive of their place of residence. This training the 
rural teacher should be able to give. 

Briefly stated, then, the teacher's academic training 
should consist of at least four years of study above 
the elementary school course. This higher training 
should be rich in those general subjects that throw 
most light upon, and tend to clarify the teacher's 
knowledge of, the common school branches. It 



400 Rural School Management 

should also include a study of those special subjects 
that are regarded as especially important for country 
children. 

Professional Preparation. Important as is the 
academic training which we have just described, it 
does not constitute the teacher's sole preparation. 
Teaching is now regarded as a learned profession which 
requires technical or special preparation of those who 
follow it in precisely the same sense that physicians 
or lawyers should have special training. If one wishes 
to be a physician, for instance, he must have both a 
liberal general education and a knowledge of those 
technical matters that all physicians should under- 
stand. The same is true of lawyers and ministers. 
No one would think of employing a doctor or a lawyer 
who had received no technical or special training for 
his work. The same principle ought to apply to 
teachers. This technical or special training, which 
the very nature of his work demands that the teacher 
shall have, constitutes his professional preparation. 

Now, in just what does this professional training 
consist? It should be noted here that the teacher is, 
first of all, a teacher of children. The first technical 
requirement, then, is that he shall know something 
about the nature of the beings to be taught. He 
should be familiar with those principles or laws of 
mind that are involved in learning. Furthermore, he 
should have some knowledge of the mental and physical 
characteristics and abilities of children, their interests 
and activities, and the conditions necessary for their 
growth and development. Hence a study of psychology, 
and of that phase of it known as child psychology, 
constitutes a very important element in the profes- 
sional training of the teacher. 



The Teacher 401 



But since the teaching of the common school subjects 
is one of the main functions of the teacher, it follows 
that he should know how this instruction can be im- 
parted in the most effective manner. A study of the 
methods of teaching is therefore an essential part of the 
teacher's professional preparation. From this study, 
the teacher should learn the purpose or function of the 
various subjects, how to arouse motive or interest on the 
part of pupils, how to conduct the recitation and assign 
lessons, and such other matters as are necessary to get 
the best results from the teaching work of the school. 

But the teacher is more than a classroom instructor. 
He is the general manager of the school. He is re- 
sponsible for the discipline, must see that supplies and 
equipment are provided, and that the school is health- 
ful and attractive. He must look after the attendance, 
keep records and make reports, and arouse such an 
interest among patrons as will lead to the making of 
any improvements needed. Hence, a knowledge of 
school management is a necessary part of his professional 
training. 

We learned in another connection that the teacher 
is not only the educational leader; he is, or should 
be, a potent factor in community uplift and better- 
ment. To this end he should understand the condi- 
tions and needs of country life. He should Imow, 
also, what means are available and what methods to 
employ in his work as a community leader. His 
training, therefore, should include a study of rural 
sociology or rural life problems. 

In addition to the foregoing technical studies, the 
preparation of the teacher should provide for some 
opportunities to observe the work done in a rural 
school and to put the ideas and principles he has learned 



402 Rural School Management 

into practice. This will add greatly to his efficiency 
when he takes charge of a school on his own responsi- 
bility. 

It is not claimed that the above outline contains all 
of the technical studies usually included in a scheme 
for the professional training of teachers. The plan 
here proposed contains what is believed to be the 
minimum preparation that should be required of all 
rural teachers. With such training as we have 
sketched, teaching in a country school ought to be 
both enjoyable to the teacher and highly profitable to 
the community. 

Summary. The training a teacher should have is of two kinds 
— academic and professional. The minimum academic prepara- 
tion should include (a) the completion of a four-year high school 
course or its equivalent, and (6) training in such subjects as 
agriculture, domestic science, and manual training. The minimum 
professional training should consist of (a) a study of psychology, 
methods of teaching, school management and rural sociology; 
and (6) some observation and practice in a well-conducted rural 
school. 

Means of Training Rural Teachers. Having pointed 
out the kinds and amount of preparation that ought to 
be required of every rural teacher, our next problem is 
to find out what means are now employed for giving 
this training. 

State Normal Schools. State normal schools are 
institutions established for the specific purpose of 
training teachers. Many of them train teachers for 
all classes of public school positions — for rural schools, 
grade positions in town and city schools, high school 
departments, principalships, and superintendencies. 
For a long time, however, not much attention was paid 
to the training of rural teachers. But now special pro- 



The Teacher 403 



vision for this phase of their work is quite common in 
normal schools. 

The plan most satisfactory from the standpoint of 
country schools is to have in the normal school a 
regular department for the training of country teachers. 
This department is usually presided over by a specialist 
in rural life and education. As many assistants are 
employed as are needed to conduct the classes in the 
department. In a few instances there is a model rural 
school either on the campus or within reach of the 
normal school, which is used as a place where the 
students in the rural department may observe model 
lessons and teach classes under the direction of an 
expert rural teacher. 

The course of study in these rural departments is 
made up of both academic and professional subjects. 
The subjects are usually selected with a view to em- 
phasizing the study of rural life problems. The 
course contains those branches which all teachers are 
supposed to understand and provides for special train- 
ing in agriculture, domestic science, manual training, 
methods of teaching, rural school management, and 
rural sociology and economics. These special subjects 
constitute the distinctive feature of the rural depart- 
ment. Clearly, the primary purpose of such a course 
is to train teachers for effective leadership in rural 
communities. 

County Training Schools. These are schools es- 
tablished for the primary purpose of training teachers 
for rural schools. In one state ^ the plan provides for 
the establishment of one such school in each county 
in which there is no normal school. Any student who 
has completed the elementary school course may enter. 
1 Wisconsin. 



404 Rural School Management 

The course of study for eighth grade graduates is two 
years and for high school graduates one year in length. 
The academic subjects taught are, for the most part, 
the branches that are taught in rural schools. The 
professional subjects include psychology, methods of 
teaching, school management, and observation and 
practice in country schools located near the training 
school. 

Educators who are thoroughly familiar with the 
work of county training schools state that they are 
highly successful in their mission. Graduates of these 
schools, it is claimed, do far better teaching than do 
most other country teachers. 

Teacher Training in High Schools. The pressing 
need for better trained rural teachers has led, in a con- 
siderable number of states, to the forming of teacher- 
training classes in regular high schools. 

One method of providing for this training is to per- 
mit those students who expect to become teachers to 
study some professional subjects in place of a corre- 
sponding number of regular high school subjects. The 
professional work offered is, as a rule, psychology, peda- 
gogy, and a brief review of two or three common school 
subjects with emphasis placed on methods of teaching 
these subjects. The professional courses are usually 
conducted by the regular high school teachers and count 
for graduation from the high school. 

But in the states where this method of training 
teachers is more highly organized, the teacher-training 
classes constitute a distinct department in the high 
school. They meet in a separate classroom, have a 
special library and other equipment, and are taught 
by specially trained teachers. The professional courses 
offered usually consist of (1) psychology, (2) school man- 



The Teacher 405 



agement, (3) methods of teaching the common school 
branches, and (4) observation and practice in a grade 
room in the city school or in a near-by rural school. 

The chief purpose of these training classes is to 
afford an opportunity to those teachers who cannot 
attend a normal school or other higher institutions to 
make at least some professional preparation for teach- 
ing. It is not claimed that the training afforded is 
all that rural teachers ought to have, and it is expected 
that those who continue to teach will avail themselves 
of the larger opportunities offered in the special schools 
for teachers. 

State Agricultural Colleges. Within the last few 
years several state agricultural colleges have established 
either a department or special courses for training 
teachers for rural leadership. *' Short courses," sum- 
mer schools, and extension departments are other 
means employed for this and other purposes. The 
professional work offered for the benefit of rural 
teachers generally includes psychology, rural school 
methods and management, rural sociology, and eco- 
nomics. The academic subjects that receive greatest 
attention are agriculture, home economics, manual 
training, and nature study. Through their extension 
courses and lecturers these institutions are reaching a 
great many rural teachers who are unable to avail 
themselves of any other means of help. 

Summary. There is now a clear recognition of the urgent 
need for better trained teachers for rural schools. To supply 
this need the following means are being employed: (1) rural 
departments or special courses in state normal schools ; (2) county 
training schools; (3) teacher- training classes in regular high 
schools; (4) special departments or courses and extension work 
in state agricultural colleges. 



406 Rural School Management 

2. The Retaining of Rural Teachers 

It has been stated that the best teachers do not, in 
general, remain in the country schools, but seek posi- 
tions in the towns and cities. Teachers who have the 
kind of training we have described, other things being 
equal, will prefer to teach in country schools. Our 
problem now is to find out what rural communities 
should do to make the " other things equal," that is, 
to make the rural school as attractive to the teacher 
as the town or city school. 

Teachers' Cottages. The problem of the teacher's 
boarding place, as we have seen, is a serious one in 
many communities. The best solution yet found for 
this problem is for the district to own a teacher's 
residence. One of the most common plans, and perhaps 
the best one, is to erect a teacher's cottage on the school 
grounds and furnish it with everything needed to 
make it a comfortable home. The " teacherage," as 
such a residence is sometimes called, need not be an 
elaborate or expensive building. In some instances 
where a new schoolhouse has been erected, the old one 
has been remodeled and converted into a home for 
the teacher. Instead of the cottage, extra rooms are 
sometimes added to the schoolhouse or a second story 
constructed for this purpose. 

The practice of providing a home for the teacher is 
now quite common in several states, and wherever it 
has been tried it has given excellent results. The 
principal advantages claimed for it are the following: 
(1) It enables the school board to procure and retain 
good teachers. Teachers are attracted by the prospect 
of having a comfortable, enjoyable home life, and when 
once they are settled in such a home they are likely to 



The Teacher 407 



want to remain. (2) By virtue of having his residence 
in the district the teacher acquires a deeper interest in 
the welfare of both the school and the community. 
He becomes a part of the community and consequently 
has a greater influence and power for good. He 
identifies himself with the neighborhood activities and 
is in a position to take a leading part in every move- 
ment whose purpose is the improvement of the school 
or of the community in general. 

Better Salaries. Reference has been made to low 
salaries as a serious hindrance to retaining the best 
teachers in country schools. No teacher can be 
blamed for seeking the position that offers the greatest 
inducement in the way of compensation. Mr. H. W. 
Foght, one of our best authorities on rural education, 
recommends the following remedy for this difficulty : 

" Salaries should be increased enough so a teacher 
with family may live on his income without worrying 
how to make ends meet. Provision should also be 
made, by legal enactment, for a liberal sliding-scale 
salary, allowing the teacher's income to increase in 
direct ratio to length of service in the same com- 
munity. This is only fair, since teachers of the right 
sort will unquestionably grow in value to the com- 
munity year by year." ^ 

A Larger School Unit. Probably the best means of 
removing the obstacles that impede the progress of 
rural schools and prevent the retaining of professionally 
trained teachers, is the adoption of a larger unit of school 
organization. The goal for which we should aim is the 
county unit with a county board of education em- 
powered to employ and fix the salaries of teachers, con- 
solidate schools, determine the length of term, repair 
1 U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 49, p. 29. 



408 Rural School Management 

and improve schoolhouses and grounds, supply the 
equipment needed, and provide for competent janitors. 
With this end attained, rural schools will appeal to 
well-trained teachers as offering an excellent oppor- 
tunity for achievement, for real leadership. 

Summary. Before rural communities can hope to procure 
and retain the best teachers, three things must be provided: 
(1) a teacher's residence; (2) a salary scale adjusted to meet 
the increasing value of the teacher's service in the community; 
and (3) a unit of organization that will make possible the very 
best teaching conditions in the school. 

REFERENCES FOR CL.VSS READING 

Bagley : Classroom Management, Chapters XVI-XVII. 

Betts and Hall : Better Rural Schools, Chapters VII-XIII. 

Carney : Country Life and the Country School, Chapters IX-XI. 

CoLGROVE : The Teacher and the School, Chapters I-II. 

CuBBERLEY : Rural Life and Education, Chapter XII. 

FOGHT : The American Rural School, Chapters V-VI. 

FOGHT : The Efficiency and Preparation of Rural School Teachers. 

(U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 49.) 
MoNAHAN and Wright: Training Courses for Rural Teachers. 

(U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1913, No. 2.) 
Salisbury : School Management, Chapters VI-VIII. 

CLASS EXERCISES 

1. Why is it more necessary for a rural teacher than for a town 
teacher to be a leader in community affairs? 

2. Describe in detail the part which you think a country 
teacher should play in the educational, business, and social life 
of the district in which he teaches. 

3. What difficulties not enumerated in the text have you known 
to be encountered by teachers in country schools? Suggest a 
remedy for each of these difficulties. 

4. What are the academic and the professional qualifications 
required by law for teaching in rural schools in your state? 

5. Give any arguments you can think of both for and against 



The Teacher 409 



the policy of requiring graduation from a high school or its equiva- 
lent as a qualification for teaching in a rural school. 

6. State three specific reasons why a teacher should have some 
professional training for his work. 

7. Should the professional training of rural teachers differ from 
that of any other class of teachers? Why? 

8. Describe the means employed in your state for the training 
of rural teachers. 

9. What measures besides those named in the text should rural 
communities adopt in order to retain well-prepared teachers in 
their schools? 

10. Discuss the following topic: What the Teacher Can Do 
to Bring about Better Conditions for Teachers in Rural Districts. 



CHAPTER XIX 
SUMMARY OF PRINCIPLES 

Our study thus far has served to point out some of ' 
the things the teacher should know in order to manage 
the affairs of the school in the most successful manner. 
Now, in closing our investigation, let us gather up 
and state in a connected order the main facts, the 
principles that should guide the teacher in his effort 
to make of the rural school the type of institution 
which present-day interests and needs demand that 
it shall be. 

The Functions of the School. Clearly, one of the 
first duties of the teacher is to know the purposes or 
functions of the school he manages. A knowledge of 
its functions is necessary in order that the work, the 
activities, of the school may be directed toward the 
attainment of these ends. What these functions are 
has been pointed out in a previous chapter, but for 
the sake of emphasis they are restated here. The 
special function of the school is to help children to he- 
come efficient citizens. Its secondary function is to 
improve the conditions and enrich the lives of all of the 
people in the community. This is the mission of the 
modern rural school, and to the attainment of these 
ends its activities should be directed. 

Interest and Cooperation of Patrons. Every teacher 
should understand clearly that a school is a partner- 
ship, a cooperative enterprise, in which teacher and 
parents work together to educate the children and 

410 



Summary of Principles 411 

promote the welfare of the whole community. If the 
school is to accomplish the task set for it, this relation 
of teacher and patrons is essential. Some methods 
of arousing a public interest in the school and securing 
the cooperation of patrons are given in an earlier 
chapter. The fact we must fix clearly in our minds 
is that the success of the school is in proportion to the 
interest of its patrons. 

The School a Health Agency. Good health is the 
greatest asset people can possess. Hence, the greatest 
service the school can render is to promote the health 
both of its pupils and of people in general. To this 
end the school surroundings must be sanitary, medical 
inspection of school children provided, warm noon 
lunches served, and a general public health campaign 
conducted. Every well-managed school is a health- 
promoting agency. 

The School an Agency for Training Children. We 
must not lose sight of the fact that schools are main- 
tained primarily for the training of children. To know 
how to make the school serve this purpose in the 
greatest measure involves a knowledge of several 
very important matters. Beautifying the school prem- 
ises, providing opportunities for plays and games, 
arranging a daily program, selecting the material for 
the course of study, promoting regular attendance, 
making use of the best incentives to study, maintain- 
ing good order, measuring the results of teaching, 
keeping records and making reports — the way in 
which these matters are managed has an important 
influence on the success and efficiency of the school. 
Our discussion of these topics in previous chapters is 
an attempt to show how to make the school an efficient 
agency for the training of children. 



412 Rural School Management 

The School an Educational Extension Agency. One 
of the foremost tendencies in education at present is 
to make the school serve a wider mission than it has 
heretofore performed. It is believed now that the 
school is not limited in its usefulness to the training 
of children, but that it should extend its influence and 
activities to include the education and improvement 
of the entire community. We have seen that the 
school may be the means of imparting health instruc- 
tion to parents as well as to children ; that the school 
ground may be a public park to be used for community 
recreation ; that the playground may be a common 
rallying place where all may meet for athletic sports, 
play festivals, and general good fellowship ; that the 
schoolhouse may be used for lectures, club meetings, 
entertainments, and various other forms of educa- 
tional, business, and social gatherings. Judged by 
present standards the most efficient school is the one 
that reaches the entire community in the most helpful 
ways. 

The Unit of Organization. To accomplish their 
true purposes, schools must have the most efficient 
unit of organization for administering their affairs. 
Educational opportunities and the burdens of taxation 
for the support of schools should be equalized, eco- 
nomic waste eliminated, and adequate supervision 
provided. The small district unit has been found 
inadequate to meet these demands. The county unit 
with authority centralized in a county board of educa- 
tion and the consolidation of small schools are believed 
to be the best means at present attainable for accom- 
plishing these ends. 

The Training of Rural Teachers. It is especially 
important that the teacher have a clear conception 



Summary of Principles 413 

of his functions in the community and sufficient aca- 
demic and professional training to put his ideas into 
successful operation. What the teacher's mission is 
and what training he should have are discussed in 
the preceding chapter, and so need not be restated 
here. The fact we wish to emphasize is the urgent 
need for more well-trained teachers, teachers who have a 
vision of the possibilities of the country school and a zeal 
to realize this vision. 



414 List of Material for Collateral Reading 

LIST OF MATERIAL FOR COLLATERAL 
READING 

I. Books 

Bagley, W. C. : Classroom Management. The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1908. 
Bagley, W. C. : School Discipline. The Macmillan Company, 

1914. 
Baldwin, Joseph : School Management and School Methods. D. 

Appleton & Company, 1904. 
Betts, G. H. : New Ideals in Rural Schools. Houghton Mifflin 

Company, 1913. 
Betts, G. H., and Hall, O. E. : Better Rural Schools. The Bobbs- 

Merrill Company, 1914. 
BuRRAGE, S., and Bailey, H. T. : School Sanitation and Decoration. 

D. C. Heath & Company, 1899. 
Carney, Mabel: Country Life and the Country School. Row, 

Peterson & Company, 1912. 
Charters, W. W. : Teaching the Common Branches. Houghton 

Mifflin Company, 1913. 
COLGROVE, C. P. : The Teacher and the School. Charles Scrib- 

ner's Sons, 1910. 
CuBBERLEY, E. P. : The Improvement of Rural Schools. Houghton 

Mifflin Company, 1912. 
CuBBERLEY, E. P. : Rural Life and Education. Houghton Mifflin 

Company, 1914. 
CuLTER, H. M., and Stone, Julia M. : The Rural School: Its 

Methods and Management. Silver, Burdett & Company, 1914. 
Curtis, H. S. : Play and Recreation for the Open Country. Ginn 

& Company, 1914. 
Curtis, H. S. : The Practical Conduct of Play. The Macmillan 

Company, 1915. 
Dewey, John and Evelyn: Schools of Tomorrow. E. P. Button 

& Company, 1915. 
Dresslar, F. B. : School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company, 

1913. 
DuTTON, S. T. : School Management. Charles Scribner's Sons, 

1904. 
Eggleston, J. D., and Bruere, R. W. : The Work of the Rural 

School. Harper & Brothers, 1913. 
Foght, H. W. : The American Rural School. The Macmillan 

Company, 1910. 
Johnson, G. E. : Education by Plays and Games. Ginn & Com- 
pany, 1907. 
Kennedy, Joseph : Rural Life and the Rural School. American 

Book Company, 1915. 
Kern, O. J. : Among Country Schools. Ginn & Company, 1906. 
Morehouse, Frances M.: The Discipline of the School. D. C. 

Heath & Company, 1914. 



List of Material for Collateral Reading 415 

Rapeer, L. W. : Educational Hygiene. Charles Scribner's Sons, 

1915. 
Salisbury, Albert: School Management. Row, Peterson & 

Company, 1911. 
Shaw, E. R. : School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company, 1901. 
Strayer, G. D. : A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. The 

Macmillan Company, 1911. 
White, E. E. : School Management. American Book Company, 

1893. 

II. Bulletins and Pamphlets 

A Handbook Containing Suggestions and Programs for Community 
Social Gatherings at Rural Schoolhouses. State Department 
of Education, Charleston, W. Va., 1915. 

Alabama School Improvement Association. Bulletin 41, State De- 
partment of Education, Montgomery. 

A Study of the Rural Schools of Saline County, Missouri. Uni- 
versity of Missouri Bulletin, Vol. 16, No. 22, Columbia, 1915. 

Beautifying Our Schools. State Department of Public Instruc- 
tion, Richmond, Va., 1911. 

Consolidation of Rural Schools and Transportation of Pupils. United 
States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 30, Washing- 
ton, D.C. 

County Organization and Administration of Schools in Alabama. 
State Department of Education, Montgomery, 1916. 

County School Unit, The. Paper read by Professor W. W. Charters 
before the Educational Council of Missouri State Teachers' 
Association. Published in Report of State Superintendent 
of Schools, for 1913, Jefferson City, Mo. 

County Unit Organization for the Administration of Rural Schools. 
United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 44, 
Washington, D.C. 

Efficiency and Preparation of Rural School Teachers. United 
States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 49, Washing- 
ton, D.C. 

Handbook for Rural Teachers. Bulletin of Education, Vol. II, 
No. 1, State Board of Education, Boise, Idaho, 1915. 

Health Esse' 'r Rural School Children. Dr. Thomas D. 

Woe-' ^e Committee on Health Problems of the 

'ication. New York City. 1916. 
'^ , Youth's Companion, Boston, 



Vit of Recreation, Rv 
\3. 

wersity of lov' 

\nds. 



416 List of Material for Collateral Reading 

Neighborhood Cooperation. Service Book No. 3, "The Fanner," 
St. Paul, Minn., 1914. 

Outline for the Organization of School Improvement Associations. 
State Department of Public Instruction, Little Rock, Ark. 

Parent-Teacher Handbook. State Commissioner of Education, 
Dover, Del., 1916. 

Place of the Teacher in the Community. State Department of 
Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. 

Relation of Physical Defects to School Progress. Division of Edu- 
cation, Russell Sage Foundation, New York City, 1909. 

Reorganized Playground, The. United States Bureau of Educa- 
tion, Bulletin, 1912, No. 16, Washington, D.C. 

Reorganizing a County System of Rural Schools. United States 
Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1916, Washington, D.C. 

Report of Committee on Larger School Unit. State Department 
of Education, Jefferson City, Mo. 1914. 

Report of Committee on Uniform Records and Reports. United 
States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1912, No. 3, Washing- 
ton, D.C. 

School Buildings, School Grounds and Their Improvement. State 
Department of Education, Topeka, Kan., 1911. 

School Improvement Association. Bulletin V, State Department 
of Education, Jackson, Miss., 1910. 

Social Activities for Rural Schools. Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 2, State 
Normal School, Lewiston, Idaho. 

Sources of Information on Play and Recreation. Department of 
Recreation, Russell Sage Foundation, New York City, 1915. 

South Carolina School Improvement Association. Bulletin VII, 
State Department of Education, Columbia, 1915. 

Standards Employed in the Determination of Teaching Efficiency. 
Normal School Quarterly, Series 14, No. 58, State Normal 
School, Normal, 111. 

Status of Rural Education in the United States. United States 
Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1913, No. 8, Washington, D.C. 

Suggestions and Program.s for Community Meetings at Consolidated 
and Rural Schoolhouses. State Department of Education, 
Jefferson City, Mo., 1914. 

Suggestions for Community Centers. Bulletin ^^6 State Depart- 
ment of Education, Olympia, Wash 

The Consolidated School in North Dak -^f Edu- 

cation, Bismarck, 1915. 

"^he Making of School Programs 
Trenton, N.J., 1913. 
' '^ew Country School. 
' ool Beautiful. P 
^Q07. 
— An 



